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Mean and individual 50-m freestyle swimming performance times for control (CON) and heating (HEAT) for males and females. *p \ 0.05, HEAT \ CON; § p \ 0.1, HEAT \ CON.
Source publication
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of using an electrical heating garment during a 30-min recovery period after a standardized swimming warm-up on subsequent swimming performance and upper body power output. On two occasions, eight male and four female elite competitive swimmers completed a standardized swimming warmup, followed by...
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Context 1
... observing both male and female participants, a trend was shown in the 50-m freestyle time where HEAT performance was faster compared to that in CON by 0.83% (p = 0.06), with a significant 1.06% improvement in the 25-m split time (p \ 0.05) (Table 1). In all, 8 of the 12 participants (6 of the 8 males and 2 of the 4 females) showed a clear improvement in swimming performance, improving by more than 0.4%-the smallest worthwhile enhancement in swimming ( Figure 2). 13 Stroke rate 1, stroke rate 2 and total stroke count were significantly greater in HEAT than in CON (p \ 0.05, p \ 0.01, p \ 0.01, respectively) (Table 1). ...
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Background:
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Objectives:
The aim of this study was twofold, being, on the one hand, to analyze the motivation of soccer players of developmental age in two different contexts (training time (baseline)...
Citations
... However, the present study demonstrates that in a thermoneutral environment, T core does not change throughout the passive rest period following the use of heated trousers. This was also apparent in several studies which have utilised heated garments during a passive recovery period (Faulkner et al. 2013a, b;Wilkins and Havenith 2017). Although, this study presents in a thermoneutral environment, T core is maintained throughout, whilst T muscle is attenuated with HEAT compared with CON. ...
... In line with the perceptual data from this present study, ratings of TC and TS improved when using the heated trousers (Table 1), suggesting that participants felt more comfortable in this trial. Indeed, being warm causes widespread changes in the central nervous system (Lowry et al. 2009) and increases perceptions of readiness to perform (Wilkins and Havenith 2017). Thus, further research is required to access the effect on performance, this appears to be a positive indication that heated garments will not hinder performance and may improve performance parameters with the increased thermal comfort in colder environments. ...
Purpose
Soccer substitutes are exposed to periods of limited activity before entering match-play, likely negating benefits of active warm-ups. This study aimed to determine the effects of using a passive heat intervention following a pre-match, and half-time warm-up, on muscle and core temperature in soccer players during ambient (18 °C) and cold (2 °C) conditions.
Methods
On four occasions, 8 male players, completed a pre-match warm-up, followed by 45 min of rest. Following this, participants completed a half-time re-warm-up followed by an additional 45 min of rest, simulating a full match for an unplaying substitute. During periods of rest, participants wore either standardised tracksuit bottoms (CON), or heated trousers (HEAT), over typical soccer attire.
Results
Vastus lateralis temperature declined less in HEAT compared to CON following the 1st half in 2 °C (Δ − 4.39 ± 0.81 vs. − 6.21 ± 1.32 °C, P = 0.002) and 18 °C (Δ − 2.48 ± 0.71 vs. − 3.54 ± 0.88 °C, P = 0.003). These findings were also observed in the 2nd half for the 2 °C (Δ − 4.36 ± 1.03 vs. − 6.26 ± 1.04 °C, P = 0.002) and 18 °C (Δ − 2.85 ± 0.57 vs. − 4.06 ± 1 °C, P = 0.018) conditions. In addition, core temperature declined less in HEAT compared to CON following the 1st (Δ − 0.41 ± 0.25 vs. − 0.84 ± 0.41 °C, P = 0.037) and 2nd (Δ − 0.25 ± 0.33 vs. − 0.64 ± 0.34 °C, P = 0.028) halves of passive rest in 2 °C, with no differences in the 18 °C condition. Perceptual data confirmed that participants were more comfortable in HEAT vs. CON in 2 °C (P < 0.01).
Conclusions
Following active warm-ups, heated trousers attenuate the decline in muscle temperature in ambient and cold environments.
... At the end of the passive break, Ts was increased, and that change was more considerable following the control treatment compared to baseline values (effect sizes were 0.25 and 0.20 for the experimental and control treatments, respectively; see Figure 2). Ts tend to resume baseline values during the break but are less likely to be entirely restored if participants wear some heating garments [36]. Soo et al. [37] also confirmed that participants wearing a blizzard blanket during the passive break showed a significantly lower increase in Ts than the control group during the first 8 min. ...
... Research on speed preservation using heating garments is available for various sports. Wilkins and Havenith [36] conducted a study with swimmers and confirmed that swimming speed could be significantly preserved with the help of electric heating, resulting in the 50 m freestyle improving by 1.01% in the male group and by 0.38% in the female group. Faulkner et al. [14] confirmed these claims and concluded that Tm decline could be attenuated and sprint-cycling performance could be improved after the passive period in EG compared to CG (p < 0.001). ...
Maintaining the state achieved after the warm-up in modern soccer represents a significant problem. The main goal of this research was to determine the influence of a regular tracksuit on skin temperature and running speed during the pre-game routine. This study included 36 youth soccer players (15.61 ± 0.68 years, 175.16 ± 4.21 cm) divided into two groups. A two-way ANOVA was used with the level of significance set at <0.05. The main findings of this research indicated that skin temperature is reduced after the WU and is slower to be restored when players wear tracksuits. In addition, the results showed a significant treatment × time-point interaction effect for 10 [p = 0.015, ηp2 = 0.16], 20 [p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.26], and 30 [p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.20] meter sprint tests. A significant treatment (experimental vs. control) main effect was observed for 10 m [p = 0.042, ηp2 = 0.35], 20 m [p = 0.020, ηp2 = 0.55], and 30 m [p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.58] sprint tests. Moreover, a significant sequence-trial interaction effect for 10 m (p = 0.002), 20 m (p < 0.001), and 30 m (p < 0.001) sprints was observed. However, the main effects of the sequence or trial factors alone were insignificant. It is concluded that regular tracksuits may have a beneficial influence on Ts loss and running speed. This research’s most significant practical application is that it lasts for a short period of time and that it requires no extra effort.
... Sólo un estudio incorporó una condición de estrategia pasiva por si sola (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014), mientras que ocho estudios utilizaron estrategias adicionales en alguna de las condiciones estudiadas (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2014). Las condiciones experimentales fueron asignadas aleatoriamente, aunque en dos estudios se asignaron convenientemente (Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017). Tres estudios se categorizaron como "baja calidad" (Jimenez-Perez et al., 2021;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017), 12 como "regular calidad" (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Cuenca-Fernández et al., 2020;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Neiva et al., 2015;Neiva, Marques, Barbosa, Izquierdo, Viana, Teixeira, et al., 2017;West et al., 2013;Wilson et al., 2014), uno como "buena calidad" (Neiva, Marques, Fernandes, et al., 2014) y ninguno obtuvo "excelente calidad". ...
... Las condiciones experimentales fueron asignadas aleatoriamente, aunque en dos estudios se asignaron convenientemente (Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017). Tres estudios se categorizaron como "baja calidad" (Jimenez-Perez et al., 2021;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017), 12 como "regular calidad" (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Cuenca-Fernández et al., 2020;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Neiva et al., 2015;Neiva, Marques, Barbosa, Izquierdo, Viana, Teixeira, et al., 2017;West et al., 2013;Wilson et al., 2014), uno como "buena calidad" (Neiva, Marques, Fernandes, et al., 2014) y ninguno obtuvo "excelente calidad". Los ítems de la escala PEDro que presentaron menor cumplimiento fueron: asignación oculta (criterio tres), grupo inicial comparable (criterio cuatro) y cegamiento (criterios cinco, seis y siete). ...
... Los resultados demostraron que el tiempo mejoró cuando la vestimenta fue abrigada con respecto a cuando ésta fue limitada (p<.01; d=0.1). Por el contrario, Wilkins & Havenith (2017) no encontraron diferencias (p=.06) entre una chaqueta calefaccionada versus una convencional aplicadas durante una FT de 30 minutos posterior a un CAA sobre el tiempo de 50-m estilo libre; sin embargo, en el grupo masculino la condición con chaqueta calefaccionada mejoró el tiempo en comparación con la condición de chaqueta convencional (p<.05). Adams & Psycharakis (2014) no encontraron diferencias (p>.05) entre los tres protocolos (CAA, CPas y CAA+CPas) sobre el tiempo de 100-m brazada de espe-cialidad con una FT de 20 minutos. ...
El propósito de este estudio fue analizar la efectividad de diversas estrategias de calentamiento sobre el rendimiento en pruebas contrarreloj hasta 200-m, mediante una revisión rápida de la literatura. Utilizando directrices PRISMA, se realizó una búsqueda en la base de datos MEDLINE/Pubmed considerando estudios experimentales desde el año 2013. La calidad metodológica se evaluó mediante la escala PEDro. De 181 registros iniciales se incluyeron finalmente 16 estudios. Todos presentaron un diseño metodológico cruzado con calidad baja (tres estudios), regular (12 estudios) y buena (un estudio). Participó un total de 161 hombres y 75 mujeres con edad media de 17.96 años, compitiendo a nivel universitario, nacional o internacional. Estrategias de calentamiento activo en el agua mejoraron el tiempo de la prueba hasta en un 1.48%. La reducción de la fase de transición posterior a la realización de calentamiento activo en el agua mejoró el tiempo hasta en un 1.50%. Estrategias adicionales al calentamiento activo en el agua, mejoraron el tiempo hasta en un 2.04%. A partir de esta revisión, se concluye que no existe suficiente evidencia que sustente el uso de las diversas estrategias de calentamiento sobre el rendimiento en pruebas contrarreloj; no obstante, sus porcentajes de reducción del tiempo representan una opción interesante para nadadores y entrenadores en entornos competitivos. Palabras claves: Natación; Ejercicio de calentamiento; Rendimiento deportivo; Fenómenos fisiológicos musculoesqueléticos y neuronales; Fuerza muscular; Ejercicio pliométrico; Temperatura corporal. Abstract. This study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on time trial performance up to 200-m through a rapid literature review. Using PRISMA guidelines, a search was performed in the MEDLINE/Pubmed database considering experimental studies since 2013. Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. From 181 initial records, 16 studies were finally included. All presented a crossover methodological design with low (three studies), fair (12 studies), and good (one study) quality. A total of 161 men and 75 women participated, with a mean age of 17.96 years, competing at university, national, or international levels. In-water active warm-up strategies improved time trial performance by up to 1.48%. Reducing the transition phase after in-water active warm-up improved time by up to 1.50%. Strategies added to in-water active warm-up improved time by up to 2.04%. From this review, we conclude that there is insufficient evidence to support using different warm-up strategies on time trial performance; however, their time reduction percentages represent an interesting option for swimmers and coaches in competitive environments. Keywords: Swimming; Warm-up exercise; Athletic Performance; Musculoskeletal and Neural Physiological Phenomena; Muscle strength; Plyometric Exercise; Body Temperature.
... A relatively recent method of passive warm-up involves the use of electrically heated clothing garments or blankets, primarily to increase skin and muscle temperature. 9,10,13 Skin and muscle temperature are strongly related (r = .97-.98) to at least 0.03 m beneath the surface of the skin. 2,14 Applied sports science research is increasingly using skin temperature assessment to indirectly assess muscle temperature in scenarios where direct muscle temperature collection is not feasible, such as in aquatic environments or with professional athletes. ...
... 2,14 Applied sports science research is increasingly using skin temperature assessment to indirectly assess muscle temperature in scenarios where direct muscle temperature collection is not feasible, such as in aquatic environments or with professional athletes. 13,15 Passive heating may demonstrate greater benefits for aquatic athletes than those reported in nonaquatic sports. After a poolbased warm-up, the swimmer will experience a greater peripheral temperature gradient. ...
... [16][17][18] Indeed, authors have theorized that improved swimming performance at higher skin temperatures was related to improved upper limb muscle performance. 13 However, there is minimal understanding of the relationship between skin or muscle temperature and upper limb muscle performance across any sport to date. ...
Purpose:
Determine the effects of skin temperature change on bench-pull power following a passive warm-up intervention with highly trained swimmers using multiple heated clothing garments.
Methods:
Using a crossover design, 8 high-performance swimmers (mean [SD]; age, 22.4 [4.4] y; body mass, 74.9 [8.1] kg; height, 1.79 [0.09] m; world record ratio, 107.3% [5.1%]) completed a pool-based warm-up followed by a 35-minute transition phase before completing 3 repetitions at 50% of 1-repetition maximum of the bench-pull exercise. During transition, swimmers wore either a warm (control) or a heated (heat) clothing condition.
Results:
Following heating, mean skin temperature was 0.7 °C higher in heat (P = .011), though no change was seen in tympanic temperature. Bench-pull mean and peak power improved by 4.5% and 4.7% following heating, respectively. A large repeated-measures correlation was observed between skin temperature and mean (r [90% CI] = .94 [.65 to .99], P < .01) and peak (r [90% CI] = .89 [.45 to .98], P < .01) power output. Thermal sensation and comfort at all regions were higher with heating (P ≤ .02).
Conclusion:
Combined upper- and lower-limb passive heating can increase whole-body skin temperature and improve short-duration upper-limb power output during the bench-pull exercise. Improvements in power output were directly related to the skin temperature increase facilitated by the heated clothing.
... Sólo un estudio incorporó una condición de estrategia pasiva por si sola (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014), mientras que ocho estudios utilizaron estrategias adicionales en alguna de las condiciones estudiadas (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilson et al., 2014). Las condiciones experimentales fueron asignadas aleatoriamente, aunque en dos estudios se asignaron convenientemente (Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017). Tres estudios se categorizaron como "baja calidad" (Jimenez-Perez et al., 2021;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017), 12 como "regular calidad" (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Cuenca-Fernández et al., 2020;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Neiva et al., 2015;Neiva, Marques, Barbosa, Izquierdo, Viana, Teixeira, et al., 2017;West et al., 2013;Wilson et al., 2014), uno como "buena calidad" (Neiva, Marques, Fernandes, et al., 2014) y ninguno obtuvo "excelente calidad". ...
... Las condiciones experimentales fueron asignadas aleatoriamente, aunque en dos estudios se asignaron convenientemente (Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017). Tres estudios se categorizaron como "baja calidad" (Jimenez-Perez et al., 2021;Sarramian et al., 2015;Wilkins & Havenith, 2017), 12 como "regular calidad" (Adams & Psycharakis, 2014;Cuenca-Fernández et al., 2020;Galbraith & Willmott, 2018;Hancock et al., 2015;McGowan et al., 2017;Neiva et al., 2015;Neiva, Marques, Barbosa, Izquierdo, Viana, Teixeira, et al., 2017;West et al., 2013;Wilson et al., 2014), uno como "buena calidad" (Neiva, Marques, Fernandes, et al., 2014) y ninguno obtuvo "excelente calidad". Los ítems de la escala PEDro que presentaron menor cumplimiento fueron: asignación oculta (criterio tres), grupo inicial comparable (criterio cuatro) y cegamiento (criterios cinco, seis y siete). ...
... Los resultados demostraron que el tiempo mejoró cuando la vestimenta fue abrigada con respecto a cuando ésta fue limitada (p<.01; d=0.1). Por el contrario, Wilkins & Havenith (2017) no encontraron diferencias (p=.06) entre una chaqueta calefaccionada versus una convencional aplicadas durante una FT de 30 minutos posterior a un CAA sobre el tiempo de 50-m estilo libre; sin embargo, en el grupo masculino la condición con chaqueta calefaccionada mejoró el tiempo en comparación con la condición de chaqueta convencional (p<.05). Adams & Psycharakis (2014) no encontraron diferencias (p>.05) entre los tres protocolos (CAA, CPas y CAA+CPas) sobre el tiempo de 100-m brazada de espe-cialidad con una FT de 20 minutos. ...
This study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on time trial performance up to 200-m through a rapid literature review. Using PRISMA guidelines, a search was performed in the MEDLINE/Pubmed database considering experimental studies since 2013. Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. From 181 initial records, 16 studies were finally included. All presented a crossover methodological design with low (three studies), fair (12 studies), and good (one study) quality. A total of 161 men and 75 women participated, with a mean age of 17.96 years, competing at university, national, or international levels. In-water active warm-up strategies improved time trial performance by up to 1.48%. Reducing the transition phase after in-water active warm-up improved time by up to 1.50%. Strategies added to in-water active warm-up improved time by up to 2.04%. From this review, we conclude that there is insufficient evidence to support using different warm-up strategies on time trial performance; however, their time reduction percentages represent an interesting option for swimmers and coaches in competitive environments.
... For instance, increased hydrogen ion (H +) concentration during muscle contraction has been reported to cause vasodilation and increased muscle blood flow [11], which helps to pump blood from the heart to all parts of the body more easily and rise body temperature [2,5]. Indeed, some studies have determined that at least 10-15 min of exercise at 70% of maximal heart rate (HR) is necessary to induce a 1-2 ºC rise in body temperature [12], with a 4-10% improvement in peak power output for every 1 °C increase [13]. Therefore, it is possible that an acceleration of the overall V O 2 kinetics is due to the increased oxygen supply obtained with augmented blood flow to the muscles which, in turn, could be associated with an increase in body temperature [10,14,15]. ...
... For that reason, it is common to see swimmers trying to minimize the negative effects of the waiting period by staying active (e.g., through ballistic stretching, jumping sets, or by punching hard on the chest and limbs) [47,54,55]. Therefore, while a good warm-up strategy is crucial, the development of methods to maintain a high muscle temperature and activation during the recovery period emerges as a factor to be considered [13]. Active warm-up activities during the transition phase, such as dryland exercises performed alone or in combination with other passive strategies such as heated tracksuit jackets, have increased their popularity among elite swimming coaches as an alternative tool to be used between the classical in-water warm-up and competition [46,[56][57][58][59]. ...
... Thus, these authors [44,47,100] concluded that the combination of a traditional pool warm-up followed by dryland exercise circuit completed alone, or including passive heat, could trigger relevant physiological responses leading to performance enhancements in real-world competition settings. Later, Wilkins and Havenith [13], compared in a 50-m front crawl a 1,600-m warm-up followed by 1 × 4 plyometric push-ups with the same warm-up using heated jacket elements during the subsequent passive recovery. Performance results were slightly better for the group including heated jackets at 25 and 50-m mark, with higher stroke rate and stroke count. ...
In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures.
... Heated clothing garments improved performance by 0.4-0.8%, with a consistent increase of 0.9-2.3˚C in skin temperature [4,19,21,41,45]. Inconsistent outcomes were reported for respiratory interventions with two studies reporting time-trial improvements of 1.1% [47] and 0.9% [44], while another study reported no change [45]. ...
... Time-trial performance. Four studies investigated clothing specific protocols with three using electrically heated jackets at~50˚C [4,19,21], while one used non-heated warm clothing consisting of a hooded top and gloves [41]. Changes in performance were varied with a 100 m time-trial improvement of 0.6% [41], whereas practically significant improvements at the elite level of 0.8% in 50 m front-crawl was also were reported by another study [19], as per the smallest worthwhile change in Olympic level swimming being 0.3-0.4% [50,51]. ...
... Four studies investigated clothing specific protocols with three using electrically heated jackets at~50˚C [4,19,21], while one used non-heated warm clothing consisting of a hooded top and gloves [41]. Changes in performance were varied with a 100 m time-trial improvement of 0.6% [41], whereas practically significant improvements at the elite level of 0.8% in 50 m front-crawl was also were reported by another study [19], as per the smallest worthwhile change in Olympic level swimming being 0.3-0.4% [50,51]. Additionally, no change in 100 m front-crawl and, although a 0.4%/0.2 ...
Background
In swimming, the period between the end of the swimming warmup and the beginning of competition is critical to performance, here termed the transition phase. Several options are available during this phase, necessitating a systematic review to understand if optimal strategies exist.
Objectives
To synthesise and critically evaluate the current literature investigating land-based warmup interventions on subsequent performance in competitive swimmers.
Methods
A search of three electronic databases (PubMed, EBSCO SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) was conducted to identify original studies until February 2022. Selection criteria dictated that (i) a control condition was used, (ii) participants were ≥ 15 years of age, (iii) a pool-based warmup was done prior to the land-based warmup. A total of 25 articles met the selection criteria.
Results
Reducing the transition phase duration by at least half led to consistently faster time-trial times of between 1.1–1.5% for all included studies. Passive warmups using clothing interventions resulted in mostly faster time-trial’s of 0.4–0.8% with increases in skin temperature frequent, though little change occurred in core temperature. The methodology of passive respiratory warmups were vastly different with positive time-trial’s effects ranging between 0.9–1.1% for two studies, though one reported no meaningful difference. Active warmups led to consistently faster time-trial’s between 0.7–0.9%, though the unpinning factors are not clear. Warmups which combined passive and active options frequently led to faster time-trial’s between 0.8–3%. Upper and combined limb post-activation performance enhancement led to mostly unfavourable time-trial changes. Lower limb exclusive protocols results were inconsistent, with limited beneficial effects on time-trial or start performance reported following plyometric protocols. However, there does appear merit in heavier loaded lower limb protocols.
Conclusion
Each of a reduced transition phase length, and passive, active or combination warmup have demonstrated improvements in swimming performance. Conversely, PAPE protocols should be used with caution, especially when including the upper limbs.
... Specifically, these authors investigated the use of heated tracksuit pants in the marshalling period before a sprint cycling race, and the intervention significantly reduced the decline of muscle temperature whilst peak power output improved. Additionally, similar passive heating garments and blizzard survival jackets have been used to manipulate body temperature during the transition phase and have improved bobsled [10], rugby [11], swimming [12,13], and rowing [14] performance. ...
... The overall effect size suggests a significant improvement in PPO following a passive heating strategy (ES 0.54 [95% CI 0.17 to 0.91], P = 0.005, I 2 = 0%). Additionally, four out of seven studies measured performance in a form of time trial, which included rowing [14], repeated sprints [5,21] and swimming [13]. Interestingly, the improved PPO did not translate into an overall effect for time trial performance (ES = − 0.27 [95% CI − 0.64 to 0.09], P = 0.141, I 2 = 0%) (Fig. 2). ...
... Following the passive heating period between the active warm-up and performance, five out of the seven included studies reported core temperature readings. Three out of the five studies implemented aural tympanic thermometry [10,13,14], two implemented rectal thermometry [9,20], and two implemented ingestible sensors to measure core temperature [5,21]. Overall, no significant effect was found in core temperature following the application of a heated garment (ES = 0.56 [95% CI − 0.09 to 1.21, P = 0.09, I 2 = 68%) (Fig. 2). ...
Background
Prior to exercise, a warm-up routine has been suggested to be an imperative factor in task readiness with the anticipation that it will enhance performance. One of the key benefits of a warm-up is the increase in muscle and core temperature, which can be achieved in a variety of ways. An effective way to achieve improvements in core and muscle temperature is by performing an active warm-up. However, lengthy transition periods between an active warm-up and exercise performance are known to cause a decline in core and muscle temperature, thereby reducing performance capability. As such, methods are needed to assist athletes during transition periods, to maintain the benefits of a warm-up with the aim of optimising performance. Accordingly, the purpose of this review is to systematically analyse the evidence base that has investigated the use of passive heating to aide sporting performance when a transition period is experienced.
Methods
A systematic review and meta-analysis were undertaken following relevant studies being identified using PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO. Studies investigating the effects of passive heating strategies during the transition period between an active warm-up and exercise performance were included. The quality of the included studies were assessed by two independent reviewers using a modified version of the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale.
Results
Seven studies, all high quality (mean = 7.6), reported sufficient data (quality score > 5) on the effects of passive heating strategies on exercise performance, these studies consisted of 85 well-trained athletes (78 male and 7 female). Passive heating strategies used between an active warm-up and exercise, significantly increased peak power output in all studies (ES = 0.54 [95% CI 0.17 to 0.91]). However, only a favourable trend was evident for exercise performance (ES = 1.07 [95% CI − 0.64 to 0.09]).
Conclusions
Based upon a limited number of well-conducted, randomised, controlled trials, it appears that passive heating strategies used between an active warm-up and exercise have a positive impact on peak power output. Although, additional research is necessary to determine the optimum procedure for passive warm-up strategies.
... Performing a warm-up prior to a sports competition is essential to the prevention of injuries and maximizes subsequent exercise performance [1][2][3]. Warm-up induced elevations in muscle temperature (Tm) can increase muscular contraction speed [1,4], nerve conduction velocity [1], and boost metabolism [5][6][7], consequently leading to improvements in exercise performance. According to prior studies, active warm-up exercise can increase Tm by 2.5-4°C [2,8], with each 1°C rise in Tm enhancing muscle power output by 4-10% [3,5,8]. ...
... However, passive warming has shown inconsistent results in terms of measured exercise performance. Passive warming used during the transition phase has been shown to improve exercise performance of swimming [4], cycling [8,12], sprinting [17], and vertical jumping [18], but have no beneficial effects on repeated sprints [19] or recovery after resistance training [20]. Furthermore, it has even been shown to have a negative effect on the performance of repetitive knee extensor exercises (time to exhaustion) [21] and muscular endurance during isometric knee extension [22,23]. ...
PURPOSE: Performing a warm-up prior to a sports competition is essential for preventing injuries and maximizing subsequent performance. Passive warming has therefore received attention because it can effectively maintain an elevated muscle temperature (T<sub>m</sub>) after a warm-up. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of local passive warming (LPW) administered during the transition phase between active warm-up and isokinetic exercises.METHODS: Eleven healthy men participated in this randomized crossover study. During the 30-minute transition period, a customized water-perfused warming pad was placed on the anterior thighs of the dominant legs (+3°C or +6°C based on the baseline skin temperature) or no intervention for the control group (CON). Subsequently, the total work, peak torque, and average power during isokinetic knee extensions (10 repetitions at a speed of 60°/sce) were measured. Using surface electromyography (EMG), the root mean square and mean frequency from the rectus femoris during knee extension were measured to assess neuromuscular activity.RESULTS: Total work (+6°C 1,289.8±389.3 vs. CON 1,437.3±408.2 Nm, p =.042), peak torque (+6°C 146.0±33.3 vs. CON 162.9±37.9 Nm, p =.022), and average power (+6°C 77.7±19.8 vs. CON 90.2±25.3 W, p =.012) were lower in the LPW +6°C group than in the CON group. EMG RMS was lower in the LPW +6°C group than in the CON group (+6°C 58.4±22.3 vs. CON 78.6±33.0 % MVC, p =.005). MF was higher in the LPW +6°C group than in the CON group (+6°C 87.5±12.4 vs. CON 81.4±11.0 Hz, p =.016).CONCLUSIONS: Local passive warming administered during the transition phase was not an appropriate strategy for boosting the performance of subsequent isokinetic exercises. Accordingly, the application of passive warming should be carefully chosen before exercise commences.
... Skin thermal imaging and measurements of tympanic temperature, heart rate, thermal comfort, and thermal sensation of male participants wearing a heated vest followed at a swim session showed a real beneficial warmup effect compared to a group of unheated participants. However, no significant effect was observed for the female swimmers tested, suggesting a sex difference with possible links to gender differences in perceived discomfort [216]. ...
The exposure to extreme temperatures in workplaces involves physical hazards for workers. A poorly acclimated worker may have lower performance and vigilance and therefore may be more exposed to accidents and injuries. Due to the incompatibility of the existing standards implemented in some workplaces and the lack of thermoregulation in many types of protective equipment that are commonly fabricated using various types of polymeric materials, thermal stress remains one of the most frequent physical hazards in many work sectors. However, many of these problems can be overcome with the use of smart textile technologies that enable intelligent ther-moregulation in personal protective equipment. Being based on conductive and functional poly-meric materials, smart textiles can detect many external stimuli and react to them. Interconnected sensors and actuators that interact and react to existing risks can provide the wearer with increased safety, protection, and comfort. Thus, the skills of smart protective equipment can contribute to the reduction of errors and the number and severity of accidents in the workplace and thus promote improved performance, efficiency, and productivity. This review provides an overview and opinions of authors on the current state of knowledge on these types of technologies by reviewing and discussing the state of the art of commercially available systems and the advances made in previous research works.
