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Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is common practice amongst mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete in. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh-in twice: 24 hours (h) prior to competition and immediate...
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... Los valores presentados fueron relevados en condiciones previas y/o posteriores inmediatas al pesaje clasificatorio de la competencia. Dichas condiciones pueden diferir de otros estudios (Kirk et al., 2020;Kons et al., 2017;Roklicer et al., 2020;White & Kirk,, 2020), arrojando valores muy disímiles. ...
Resumen Introducción: El objetivo del estudio fue determinar el somatotipo de los/las judocas argentinos de la categoría senior, participantes del campeonato nacional argentino del año 2021, y compararlos entre grupos de división de peso corporal. Métodos: estudio transversal descriptivo a 91 judocas participantes del campeonato nacional de categoría mayores (24 mujeres y 67 varones). El somatotipo se calculó utilizando el método de Heath-Carter. Resultados: El valor promedio del somatotipo femenino fue de 4,24-5,75-1,05 para el componente endomórfico, mesomórfico y ectomórfico respectivamente. El valor promedio de somatotipo masculino fue de 2,44-5,1-1,7. A su vez, se dividió cada grupo en 4 categorías: livianos, medios, pesados y libre de peso. Los valores de somatotipo de categoría liviano femenino fueron 2,9-4,5-2,2, medio femenino 4,1-5,2-1,5, pesado femenino 4,8-5,8-0,6 y libre de peso femenino 6,8-10,1-2,3. Para los varones los valores fueron de: liviano 1,7-4,2-3, medio 2,4-5,2-1,4, pesado 4,5-6,8-0,2 y libre de peso 7,8-10,7-2,5. Conclusión: La diferenciación por división de peso corporal hace necesario una clasificación del somatotipo más específica, ya que se encuentran diferencias entre los grupos. El mayor valor del componente endomórfico se dio en las categorías libres de peso, en ambos sexos. Los puntajes más altos de ectomorfia se dieron en ambas categorías de peso livianos. Se evidencia una coincidencia de componente mesomórfico del grupo de peso medianos para ambos sexos. Los datos presentados constituyen una referencia específica de utilidad para la evaluación y seguimiento de los/as judocas de selección. Se considera relevante vincular el somatotipo con la composición corporal, testeos físicos específicos y resultados deportivos, a fin de establecer un mejor perfil del/el judoca argentino. Abstract Introduction: The objective of the study was to determine the somatotype of the Argentine judokas of the senior category, who took part at the Argentine national championship of 2021, and to compare them between groups of body weight division. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted with 91 judokas participating in the national championship (24 women and 67 men). The somatotype was calculated using the Heath-Carter method. Results: The mean value of the female somatotype was 4.24-5.75-1.05 for the endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic components, respectively. The mean male somatotype value was 2.44-5.1-1.7. Each group was divided into 4 categories: light, medium, heavy, and weightless. The somatotype values of the women's lightweight category were 2.9-4.5-2.2, women's medium 4.1-5.2-1.5, women's heavy 4.8-5.8-0.6 and, women's free weight 6.8-10.1-2.3. For males, the values were: light 1.7-4.2-3, medium 2.4-5.2-1.4, heavy 4.5-6.8-0.2 and free weight 7.8-10.7-2.5. Conclusion: Differentiation by division of body weight makes it necessary to classify the somatotype more specifically since differences are found between the groups. The highest value of the endomorphic component was found in the weight-free categories, for both sexes. The highest ectomorphy scores were given in both lightweight categories. There is a coincidence of the mesomorphic component of the medium-weight group for both sexes. The data presented constitute a specific reference useful for evaluating and monitoring elite national judokas. It is considered relevant to link the somatotype with body composition, specific physical tests, and, sports results, to establish a better profile of the Argentine judoka.
... Combat sports athletes have developed various strategies for weight cutting over the years, many of which have been researched. Common methods used by combat sports athletes include water loading, fluid restriction, dieting, increased exercise, sauna or hot bath, sauna suits, with rarer methods of spitting, laxatives, diuretics, diet pills, or vomiting [15,16,[22][23][24]37,46,47,[69][70][71][72][73]. While weight cutting practices have been shown to vary among combat sports [19,48], water loading, dieting, hot salt baths, and saunas were common strategies used among mixed martial arts athletes [12,16,21]. ...
Background: Although there is much literature demonstrating weight changes in professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes, there is minimal data comparing male and female MMA athletes. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to compare weight changes between professional male and female MMA athletes leading up to competition. Methods: One hundred and three professional flyweight MMA athletes competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) were used for the study. Weight was obtained at multiple time points leading up to the competition. Two-way ANOVAs and post hoc t-tests were used, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: ANOVA revealed there was a significant main effect of condition for weight changes (p < 0.001) and a significant main effect of sex on weight changes (p = 0.002) prior to competition. Post hoc analysis revealed that males lost more weight prior to the official weigh-in and gained more weight prior to competition when compared to females (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: MMA athletes lose weight prior to the official weigh-in and gain weight prior to competition. Moreover, male MMA athletes lose more weight prior to and gain more weight after when compared to female MMA athletes competing in the UFC’s flyweight division.
... 9,11,12 Evidence has highlighted that even a relatively low magnitude of RWL (< 5% BM) can result in decrements in force output. 13 This magnitude of RWL is less than that of the 6% to 14% reductions in BM employed in actual practice, 4,5,14,15 suggesting ...
... 6,20,21 Competitive success outcomes in MMA are inconsistent, with RWG being evidenced to have either a positive effect, 17 a negative effect, 22 or no effect. 14 This picture has recently been complicated further in MMA by data showing a positive effect at the "national" standard, but none at the "regional" or "elite" level. 23 Many of the aforementioned investigations examining the association between RWG and bout outcome were limited by small sample sizes. ...
... Given the interest in bout outcome, athletes whose bouts ended in a draw (ie, no winning athlete) were excluded in the primary analysis as has been done in similar studies previously. 14,17 Statistical Method ...
Purpose:
Combat-sport athletes commonly undergo rapid weight loss prior to prebout weigh-in and subsequently rapid weight gain (RWG) prior to competition. This investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of RWG and weight differential (WD) between opponents on competitive success.
Methods:
A retrospective cohort study was performed using data from professional mixed martial arts (MMA) and boxing events held between 2015 and 2019. The primary outcome was RWG (relative and absolute) between weigh-in and competition stratified by bout winners and losers. Binary logistic regression was used to explore the relationships among bout outcome, RWG, and WD between competitors on the day of their bout.
Results:
Among 708 MMA athletes included, winners regained more relative body mass (8.7% [3.7%] vs 7.9% [3.8%], P < .01) than losers. In 1392 included male boxers, winners regained significantly more relative body mass (8.0% [3.0%] vs 6.9% [3.2%], P < .01) than losers. Each percentage body mass increase resulted in a 7% increased likelihood of victory in MMA and a 13% increase in boxing. The relationship between RWG and competitive success remained significant in regional and male international MMA athletes, as well as boxers. WD predicted victory in international mixed martial artists and boxers. WD predicted victory by knockout or technical knockout in international MMA athletes and regional boxers.
Conclusion:
This analysis of combat-sport athletes indicates that RWG and WD influence competitive success. These findings raise fair-play and safety concerns in these popular sports and may help guide risk-mitigating regulation strategies.
... The current data demonstrate that UFC athletes lost nearly 6.7% of their total body weight in a 72 h period, however, the UFC athletes regained approximately 9.7% of their total body weight between official weigh-in and competition (24-36 h post). Previous rehydration research has shown that weight regained may or may not have an impact on overall winning and performance [27,30]. This may demonstrate that UFC athletes are more effective at weight cutting strategies when compared to other professional fighters utilized in previous research. ...
Previous research has demonstrated that professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes employ a variety of weight manipulation strategies to compete at given weight classes. Although there is much literature demonstrating weight manipulation methods, minimal research exists analyzing how much weight MMA athletes lose prior to the official weigh-in. Moreover, there is minimal research examining how much weight professional MMA athletes gain between the official weigh-in and competition. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to analyze weight loss/regain in professional MMA athletes. Data collected from 616 professional MMA athletes (31.1 ± 4.0 yrs.; 177.1 ± 4.7 cm) competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) between 2020 and 2022 were used for the study. The athlete’s weight was obtained 72 h, 48 h, and 24 h prior to the official weigh-in, at the official weigh-in, and prior to competition. Random effects analysis was utilized to compare weight at a variety of time points between different weight classes. All statistics were analyzed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. There is a significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between weight classes and time points in professional MMA. MMA athletes decrease body weight significantly prior to the official weigh-in. MMA athletes increase body weight significantly between official weigh-in and competition. Based on these data, it appears that MMA athletes average a weight loss of nearly 7% within 72 h prior to the official weigh-in. The data also suggest that athletes gain nearly 10% of total weight between the official weigh-in and competition.
... The act of weight regain (WR) after weigh-in is reported as a common act among wrestlers of both genders with no differences (p < 0.005) between relative values of BM gains between genders [75]. Kirk et al. [76] showed that the magnitude of the WR does not predict victory or defeat in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. Alternatively, Coswig et al. [63] found that the magnitude of WG was greater in winners than losers, which was more important than the magnitude of RWL. ...
... Finally, Miarka et al. [90] calculated how spatiotemporal and technical-tactical actions increased a fighter's probability of winning. The authors found that "keeping distance", "head strike landed", "offensive passes", and "effective takedowns" were the most significant actions related to the probability of victory [76]. More recently, an investigation based on more than 900 successful submissions by UFC athletes found that 15.5% of the fights ended up by strangulation, with the rear naked choke used in 49.1% of those fight finishes, and that 76.2 % of total submissions were used by grappling-style fighters [91,92]. ...
This review aimed to analyze the findings in the literature related to Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) through an exploratory systematic review and to present the state of the art from a multifactorial perspective. The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement, with a search performed in the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Participants were competitive athletes (amateurs or professionals) of regional, national, or international levels. Of the 2763 registries identified, 112 studies met the eligibility criteria. The pooled sample size and age were 20,784 participants, with a mean age of 27.7 ± 6 years for male and 28.9 ± 3 years for female, with the vast majority of athletes being male (94.9%). MMA athletes were 17.2% amateurs, 73.8% professionals, and 9% were not reported. The scientific literature related to MMA reported injuries (n = 28), weight loss (n = 21), technical and tactical analysis (n = 23), physical fitness (n = 8), physiological responses and training characteristics (n = 13), psychobiological parameters (n = 12), and interventions applied to MMA athletes (n = 7). Therefore, this exploratory systematic review presents practitioners and researchers with seven broad summaries of each facet of performance of importance in this population of athletes.
... In addition, most of the athletes (65%) stated at least one incident of RWL to "not go according to plan", indicating the perceived competitive advantage may often not be achieved by combat athletes. 39 It is crucial these reports do not go ignored and athletes seek medical/ professional advice regarding RWL strategies because many poor outcomes in individual athletes have been documented. 40 In addition, MMA athletes presented higher Volume 32 · Number 6 · November 2022 www.cjsportmed.com ...
Objective:
There is a high incidence of concussion and frequent utilization of rapid weight loss (RWL) methods among combat sport athletes, yet the apparent similarity in symptoms experienced as a result of a concussion or RWL has not been investigated. This study surveyed combat sports athletes to investigate the differences in symptom onset and recovery between combat sports and evaluated the relationships between concussion and RWL symptoms.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Setting:
Data were collected through an online survey.
Participants:
One hundred thirty-two (115 male athletes and 17 female athletes) combat sport athletes.
Interventions:
Modified Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT) symptom checklist and weight-cutting questionnaire.
Main outcome measures:
Survey items included combat sport discipline, weight loss, medical history, weight-cutting questionnaire, and concussion and weight-cutting symptom checklists.
Results:
Strong associations (rs = 0.6-0.7, P < 0.05) were observed between concussion and RWL symptoms. The most frequently reported symptom resolution times were 24 to 48 hours for a weight cut (WC; 59%) and 3 to 5 days for a concussion (43%), with 60% to 70% of athletes reporting a deterioration and lengthening of concussion symptoms when undergoing a WC. Most of the athletes (65%) also reported at least one WC in their career to "not go according to plan," resulting in a lack of energy (83%) and strength/power (70%).
Conclusions:
Rapid weight loss and concussion symptoms are strongly associated, with most of the athletes reporting a deterioration of concussion symptoms during a WC. The results indicate that concussion symptoms should be monitored alongside hydration status to avoid any compound effects of prior RWL on the interpretation of concussion assessments and to avoid potential misdiagnoses among combat athletes.
... At present, athletes are grouped in divisions determined by a BM limit, measured around 24-32 h before the fight (i.e. official weigh-in) (Coswig et al., 2015;Kirk, Langan-Evans, & Morton, 2020). Many athletes choose to fight in divisions in which the BM limit is several kilograms (kg) below their habitual BM in order to gain a perceived advantage related to a greater BM, size, reach, and/or strength (Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Franchini et al., 2012;Kirk et al., 2020;Park, Alencar, Sassone, Madrigal, & Ede, 2019). ...
... At present, athletes are grouped in divisions determined by a BM limit, measured around 24-32 h before the fight (i.e. official weigh-in) (Coswig et al., 2015;Kirk, Langan-Evans, & Morton, 2020). Many athletes choose to fight in divisions in which the BM limit is several kilograms (kg) below their habitual BM in order to gain a perceived advantage related to a greater BM, size, reach, and/or strength (Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Franchini et al., 2012;Kirk et al., 2020;Park, Alencar, Sassone, Madrigal, & Ede, 2019). To ensure qualification, athletes use rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies for the official weigh-in, followed by rapid weight gain (RWG) (Kirk et al., 2020;Park et al., 2019). ...
... Many athletes choose to fight in divisions in which the BM limit is several kilograms (kg) below their habitual BM in order to gain a perceived advantage related to a greater BM, size, reach, and/or strength (Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Franchini et al., 2012;Kirk et al., 2020;Park, Alencar, Sassone, Madrigal, & Ede, 2019). To ensure qualification, athletes use rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies for the official weigh-in, followed by rapid weight gain (RWG) (Kirk et al., 2020;Park et al., 2019). In fact, MMA athletes lose ∼10% of their BM in approximately seven days, half of it in the final 24 h leading up to the official weigh-in (Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2019;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Crighton et al., 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Matthews, Stanhope, Godwin, Holmes, & Artioli, 2019). ...
We aimed to analyze whether rapid weight gain (RWG) between the official weigh-in and the time of the fight was associated with fight success in MMA. A total of 700 professional MMA fights involving 1,400 weigh-ins from 21 MMA promotions regulated by the California State Athletic Commission were analyzed. Multilevel logistic regression accounting for individual (i.e., athlete) and cluster levels (i.e., fights) was used to analyze the association of all measures with a theoretical relationship with the dependent variable and without interdependency with one another (i.e., %RWG, sex, body mass division, competition level) with the fight outcome (i.e., win or loss). The odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated. The highest mean %RWG was found for the flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, and lightweight divisions. The %RWG significantly predicted the fight outcome (ß=0.044; OR=1.045; 95%CI=1.014–1.078; p=0.005) so that for each 1% of additional RWG, the chance of winning increased by 4.5%. With the largest sample to date and in a ‘real-world’ scenario, the present results suggest that the magnitude of RWG is linked to the chance of winning in MMA combats. It is suggested that regulatory commissions, confederations, and event organizers should consider regulating RWG, considering that, despite its detrimental impact on the athletes’ health and performance, the potential advantage might stimulate athletes to invest in rapid weight loss, followed by gain after the official weigh-in to increase their chance of winning.
... Actually, AWG following rapid weight loss has been associated with improved performance in judo, MMA and wrestling (Coswig et al.,2019;Reale et al., 2016;Wroble & Moxley, 1998). However, there are studies stating no positive effect of AWG on competitive performance Kirk et al., 2020;Reale et al., 2017;Zubac et al., 2018a). Besides, Brenchney et al. (2019) suggests that extreme weight loss may lead to negative competition outcome. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of weigh-in time on hydration status and acute weight gain (AWG). Twenty-seven men judo athletes and 23 men wrestlers voluntarily participated in this study. Body mass and urine specific gravity (USG) of the athletes were measured just before official weigh-in and competition. Two-way analysis of variance (split-plot ANOVA) with repeated measurements (time x sport) were used to determine differences in AWG and USG between groups and measurement times. In case of significant difference between sports, t-tests were applied. There was a significant main effect of time (p<0.01, ES=0.25) on USG. A significant difference was found in USG between official weigh-in and start of the competition in wrestlers (p<0.01) but not in judo athletes. There was significant difference in AWG and AWG% between sports (p<0.01). Moreover, most of the athletes presented high level of dehydration before both official weigh-in and competition. In conclusion, judo athletes could not rehydrate as much as wrestlers despite 15h of recovery. It can be suggested that the period between official weigh-in and competition would be shortened to prevent non-optimal hydration status and rapid weight gain, with caution to allow sufficient recovery period.
... However, the very premise of categorisation within these sports has created unique cultures of weight making behaviours and practices, whereby individual athletes often aim to achieve the lowest category limit possible, in order to gain psycho-physiological advantages over opponents (Pettersson, Pipping Ekstrom, & Berg, 2012). Contrary to these beliefs, it should be noted that an emerging research base is now beginning to outline that the effect of these behaviours and practices, particularly in the context of rapid weight loss and gain, may not convey any overall performance benefits for weight making athletes (Kirk, Langan-Evans, & Morton, 2020). Table 1 highlights a select sample of previous cross sectional investigations examining the AWL and CWL practices of male and female athletes within differing weight category events. ...
... To that end and despite parallel female participation in all the aforementioned sporting disciplines, previous exercise science research in weight making sports has persisted to predominantly focus on male athletes. In a study investigating rapid weight gain from official weigh in to immediately prior to bouts within five professional MMA events, the magnitude of BM increase was as high and in some instances higher, when females were compared to male competitors (Kirk et al., 2020). This is also similar to findings from a systematic review exploring rapid weight loss and gain in combat sport athletes, where females comprised only 3.5% of the 4432 collective participants, however, still highlighting similar results between the sexes (Matthews, Stanhope, Godwin, Holmes, & Artioli, 2019). ...
Weight making can be described as the process of reducing body mass in events where aesthetics, propulsion or the requirement to meet a specific weight category limit, are considered to be of competitive importance. Cross sectional research specifically focussed on weight category sports, has highlighted behaviours and practices that are similar in athletes of both sexes. Regardless of this and despite parallel participation in weight category sporting events, females are drastically underrepresented in studies examining body mass loss interventions across both chronic and acute timeframes. However, it has been well characterised that these types of body mass loss strategies can be causative of low energy availability, leading to consequences of female athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sports. Furthermore, female specific body composition and physiological systems modulated by the anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones within the menstrual cycle or use of hormonal contraception, can lead to potential outcomes which need to be considered carefully, particularly when employing acute weight loss strategies that are often utilised by weight making athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article serves to review the aforementioned issues, whilst offering practical recommendations via initial assessment, chronic/acute interventions and refeeding/recovery plans to help support the implementation of body mass loss strategies in the context of weight making specifically with female athletes.
... This apparent lack of a physiological response to solely technical training is especially relevant given that successful and unsuccessful participants may be distinguishable by their lower body force production [7]. The requirement of incorporating a multitude of potentially conflicting technical and physical focused training sessions, coupled with the requirement to "make weight" for competition [8,9], clearly highlights the challenge and importance of formulating a well-structured and periodised training plan. ...
... As such, current MMA training practice has not been quantified and described in relation to frequency and relative intensities of each training category, periodisation and tapering strategies, nor the associated effects of training on fatigue, recovery and adaptation [20]. Additionally, it is also unclear if training practices are manipulated in those athletes who are actively engaging in body mass reduction strategies in order to 'make weight' for competition [8,9]. It is therefore difficult to determine which training methods, loading strategies and recovery protocols are most appropriate for this population [21]. ...
... This result is supported by recent data from another research group who also found that MMA training load is only reduced in the week of the bout [17]. In addition to extreme 'weight cutting' seen in our cohort and MMA competitors in general [8,9], it is more likely that performance would have been impaired. Though we did not collect any direct performance data, evidence from boxing suggests that a taper of 10 days or fewer causes a reduction in combat sport performance until several days after competition [45]. ...
The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA athletes. MMA competitors (n = 14; age = 22.4 ± 4.4 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 7.7 kg; stature = 171 ±9.9 cm) were observed during training for 8 consecutive weeks without intervention. Seven athletes were training for competitive bouts whilst the remaining 7 were not. Daily training duration, intensity (RPE), load (sRPE and segRPE), fatigue (short questionnaire of fatigue) and body region soreness (CR10 scale) were recorded. Using Bayesian analyses (BF 10 ≥3), data demonstrate that training duration (weekly mean range = 3.9–5.3 hours), sRPE (weekly mean range = 1,287–1,791 AU), strain (weekly mean range = 1,143–1,819 AU), monotony (weekly mean range = 0.63–0.83 AU), fatigue (weekly mean range = 16–20 AU) and soreness did not change within or between weeks. Between weeks monotony (2.3 ± 0.7 AU) supported little variance in weekly training load. There were no differences in any variable between participants who competed and those who did not with the except of the final week before the bout, where an abrupt step taper occurred leading to no between group differences in fatigue. Training intensity distribution corresponding to high, moderate and low was 20, 33 and 47%, respectively. Striking drills accounted for the largest portion of weekly training time (20–32%), with MMA sparring the least (2–7%). Only striking sparring and wrestling sparring displayed statistical weekly differences in duration or load. Athletes reported MMA sparring and wrestling sparring as high intensity (RPE≥7), BJJ sparring, striking sparring and wrestling drills as moderate intensity (RPE 5–6), and striking drills and BJJ drills as low intensity (RPE≤4). We conclude that periodisation of training load was largely absent in this cohort of MMA athletes, as is the case within and between weekly microcycles.
