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![Map showing lack of access to drinking water (low to extremely high) based on UNICEF and WHO data [27] and countries with a potential for sand dam development (collected from reports and websites, particularly from [28,29]).](publication/351847954/figure/fig1/AS:1027368030318595@1621955034485/Map-showing-lack-of-access-to-drinking-water-low-to-extremely-high-based-on-UNICEF-and.jpg)
Map showing lack of access to drinking water (low to extremely high) based on UNICEF and WHO data [27] and countries with a potential for sand dam development (collected from reports and websites, particularly from [28,29]).
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![Figure 2. World aridity index [38] and countries with sand dams,...](publication/351847954/figure/fig2/AS:1027368030326787@1621955034548/World-aridity-index-38-and-countries-with-sand-dams-collected-and-modified-from_Q320.jpg)
Augmenting water availability using water-harvesting structures is of importance in arid and semi-arid regions (ASARs). This paper provides an overview and examines challenges and prospects of the sand dam application in dry riverbeds of ASARs. The technology filters and protects water from contamination and evaporation with low to no maintenance c...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... this context, water resources have significant socio-economic implications [24,26]. In general, United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) data show that most ASARs have a high to extremely high lack of access to drinking water ( Figure 1). ...
Context 2
... harvesting in sand reservoirs is crucial to solving the major growing problem of reduced groundwater levels, which induces water scarcity in rural areas [37]. Rivers with sandy riverbeds occur mainly in arid and semi-arid climate zones, including America and Australia, and more than 60 countries in ASARs have potential for san dam development (Figure 1). However, the reports of application are dominantly from the eastern and southern parts of Africa and a few countries in Asia such as India (Figure 2). ...
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Citations
... This situation resulted in the community resorting to drawing water from Sukuroi pan for domestic purposes, illustrating the resilience of local communities when faced with water source challenges. This practice aligns with findings from similar regions, where communities adapt by turning to alternative water sources when their primary sources fail (Yifru et al., 2021). ...
This research presents a comprehensive study on water resources in the semi-arid regions of Isiolo and Samburu counties in Kenya, with a focus on the conservancies. The study employed a multidisciplinary approach to evaluate water availability, accessibility, quality, and suitability for improved livelihoods in these regions. Data was collected through literature reviews, site visits, and laboratory experiments, with a specific focus on groundwater and surface water sources. Our study revealed that the primary source of domestic water was from boreholes. They had an average depth of approximately 70 m, with average yields of 2 to 6 m3/hr and were strategically located along the riparian areas of Laggas, which are fairly fractured, allowing for recharge of floodwater. Some areas had poor groundwater yields of 1- 2 m3/hr which could be attributed to the hard geological formations and limited recharge areas within the region. The areas geological composition comprises of volcanic layers of basalts, trachytes, phonolites overlain by regolith, which retain water except the basalts and trachytes have limited water storage capacity resulting into poor yields when fractured. There was a diversification of water resource use including; water pans, springs, rivers, boreholes, earth dams, rock catchment and gravity water supply to curb seasonality. The TDS, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and electrical conductivity (EC) were within the WHO recommended standards except for variations such as high alkalinity, high fluoride levels, and excess algae observed especially in the water pans indicating the presence of pollution. Identified challenges included: construction and design problems, improper siting, siltation, lack of protection, absence of spillways and silt traps, and contamination by livestock and wildlife. The research highlights the significance of diversified water sources, alternative energy solutions, groundwater potential, and community-based management for addressing water scarcity and improving access to clean and safe water for arid livelihoods sustainability.
... The most comprehensive information about groundwater dams is given in Nilsson (1988), which consists of the most detailed concept including literature review. As it is mentioned in Nilsson (1988); there are several groundwater dams in the world including Europe, Africa, Asia and America [5]. ...
In dry land areas like Somaliland shortage of water is very common. People have to travel for long distances to find water, and after it rains, most of the water is lost to evaporation or surface run off. The challenge in arid and semi-arid climates is how to harvest rainwater; most of villages in Somaliland need how to harvest rainwater and running water through their dry valleys. This study aimed to evaluate the positive and negative impact of existing water infrastructure (sand dams) in dry rivers in Cadadley district and to compare these with appraisal of sites yet to be developed that can be constructed sand dams in Cadadley region Somaliland. This study employs a method known as probing, which involves hammering a rod into the middle of the riverbed until it makes contact with the floor beneath the sand, producing a dull sound. The level of the sand is then marked on the rod, which is subsequently pulled straight up without any twisting. The crucial factor in determining the location for constructing a sand storage dam is the depth of the basement or impermeable layer relative to the riverbed surface. Ideally, the dam should be built where the impermeable layer is closest to the riverbed surface. The result shows that sand dam need reconstruction because of short of their spill ways and there is poor choice location.
... Water scarcity creates a negative impact on economic development also (Morante-Carballo et al., 2022). The impact of global climate change has further exacerbated the water utilisation challenges in ASARs (Yifru et al., 2021). Several studies have been depicted that, within limited scope of water resources optimum utilisation of water is the ultimate option and channelisation of rainfall generated water in superlative way can be the ultimate solution for this region that can lead to sustainability (Boers and Ben-Asher, 1982;Bruins et al., 1986;Helmreich and Horn, 2009;Kahinda et al., 2007;Wei et al., 2005). ...
... Small dams and ponds are regularly utilized to collect runoff. Surface water reserving solutions, on the other hand, confront two major challenges: evaporation and siltation, which can significantly diminish effective storage capacity and efficiency (Yifru et al., 2021). In Egypt, irrigated agriculture is critical for the production of food, feed, and fiber (CAPMAS, 2022). ...
Climate change has a considerable impact
on irrigated agriculture, which is vital for food and
fiber production. In this study, in the context of climate change, simulation model CROPWAT 8 was
employed to compute the reference evapotranspiration, and net irrigation water requirement for wheat,
barley, maize, sugar beet, potato, tomato, and date
palm. In addition, the WaterGEMS model was utilized to design a new sprinkler irrigation system
to run long-term simulations of hydraulic behavior
within pressurized pipe networks to irrigate 43 acres
for two arid sites (Siwa Oasis and West Elminya
fields) inside the 1.5-million-acre groundwater irrigation project in the Egyptian western desert. Five
scenarios for climate change were employed in the
current (1991–2023), representative concentration
path (RCP) 8.5 greenhouse gas emission scenarios for
the 2040s, 2060s, 2080s, and 2100s. Mean ETo values for the current scenario show 4.56 and 5.7 mm for
the Siwa Oasis and West Elminya fields, respectively.
The climate changes cause an increase of the reference evapotranspiration by 4.6, 5.9, 9.4, and 12.7%
for RCP: 8.5 greenhouse gas emissions for the 2040s,
2060s, 2080s, and 2100s scenarios, respectively, for
the Siwa Oasis field. On the other hand, an increased
the ratio for the reference evapotranspiration by 4.2, 5.4,
8.6, and 11.6% were observed for the scenarios in the
West Elminya field, respectively. The designed sprinkler system indicated a capacity of 111.4 m3 h−1 and
167 m3 h−1 for Siwa and West Elminya fields, respectively. The study suggests using crop patterns for
wheat, barley, potato, and sugar beet to save irrigation
water.
... A number of studies have assessed various aspects of sand dams in Kenya, though this is limited mainly to the eastern region, with the majority looking at coliforms [16,17], pH, turbidity, heavy metals and electro-conductivity/salinity [17][18][19][20]. Additionally, there are few studies which have evaluated the hydrology of sand dams and their utilization [11,13,21]. Thus, despite most of the sand dams being prone to agro-based contamination, especially with nitrates (NO 3 ) and phosphates (PO 4 ) from applied fertilizers, and animal and human wastes, there is limited information on the distribution of these pollutants in existing sand dams [22,23]. ...
... Particles such as sand, silt, clay and organic matter retained within the sand dam influence both the quantity and quality of stored water [16,21,25]. Deposition and composition of these particles within the sand dams are expected to vary spatially and temporally because of their size, height of the spillway, water velocity and exposure time to degradation. ...
... A number of studies have assessed various aspects of sand dams in Kenya, though this is limited mainly to the eastern region, with the majority looking at coliforms [16,17], pH, turbidity, heavy metals and electro-conductivity/salinity [17][18][19][20]. Additionally, there are few studies which have evaluated the hydrology of sand dams and their utilization [11,13,21]. Thus, despite most of the sand dams being prone to agro-based contamination, especially with nitrates (NO 3 ) and phosphates (PO 4 ) from applied fertilizers, and animal and human wastes, there is limited information on the distribution of these pollutants in existing sand dams [22,23]. ...
... Particles such as sand, silt, clay and organic matter retained within the sand dam influence both the quantity and quality of stored water [16,21,25]. Deposition and composition of these particles within the sand dams are expected to vary spatially and temporally because of their size, height of the spillway, water velocity and exposure time to degradation. ...
Communities in semi-arid lands use sand dams to enhance access water during the dry seasons. However, there is limited information on the quality of water derived from these sand dams, especially in degraded lands where storm surface runoff poses contamination risk. Thus, this study aimed at assessing the spatial–temporal variations in water quality of sand dams in Chepareria, West Pokot County in Kenya. Water samples were collected from scooping holes across 18 purposefully selected sand dams. Results obtained showed significant differences in water quality based on a sand dam’s age and location of the scooping holes, but the magnitude of these differences differed with specific properties. For instance, in recently constructed sand dams (<1 year), scooping holes near the sand dam wall had lower pH values (8.5) than holes scooped a distance from the sand dam wall (9.2). For total dissolved solutes and microbial properties, sand dam age had the greatest impact, over the location of the scooping holes. For example, water obtained from <1 year old sand dams had significantly higher TDS with an average value of 100.3 mg L−1. The thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) exceeded the maximum allowable levels recommended by The World Health Organization. Thus, water obtained from these sand dams should be treated before consumption. Finally, sand dams meant for domestic water harvesting should be protected. Shallow wells with appropriate aprons for effective protection against contamination should be installed to enhance abstraction of safe water from sand dams.
... As indicated by different researchers (e.g., Bouwer, 2002;Dillon et al., 2022), groundwater recharge offers an opportunity to store excess water underground. Examples of structures constructed as water storages in dry river beds and reported to increase adaptive capacity to climate change conditions are sand dams (Lasage et al. 2015;Quilis et al., 2009;Cate & Paul, 2016;Yifru et al., 2021). ...
... The contradiction between the current status of increasingly scarce water resources globally and the drinking water needs of 2 billion people will become more pronounced over time. 1 The spatial and temporal variability of rainfall and difficulty maintaining surface water bodies are inherent to the current situation and long-term dilemma in arid and semi-arid regions (ASARs). 2,3 People in arid and semi-arid regions often choose sandy soil as the foundation or building material when constructing hydraulic facilities such as dams, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, and the resulting sand dams are characterized by low cost and low evaporation. 4 However, 90% of sand dams built since 1970 have become unusable due to leakage problems because of the inherent high permeability of their sand bases. ...
... 4 However, 90% of sand dams built since 1970 have become unusable due to leakage problems because of the inherent high permeability of their sand bases. 2,5 In addition, permeability properties can also lead to the piping of sand dams under high head action, which results in sand particles being continuously carried away until collapse. [6][7][8] These reasons contribute to the low service life and water storage efficiency of sand dams. 2 Therefore, improving the permeability resistance of sand around sand dams has important water conservation significance. ...
... [6][7][8] These reasons contribute to the low service life and water storage efficiency of sand dams. 2 Therefore, improving the permeability resistance of sand around sand dams has important water conservation significance. Commonly used methods for sand-based permeability resistance treatment include compacted clay liners, bentonite liners, geomembranes, concrete covers, and polymer coatings. ...
This study explores the application of roughness pretreatment on plant-based natural fiber surfaces to enhance the sealing effectiveness of the sand-fiber interfacial. The technique roughens the reinforced material by presetting CaCO 3 seeds on the fiber surface, thereby immobilizing more bacteria as nucleation sites, further increasing the interfacial bonding area by promoting bio-mineralization and achieving efficient sealing of preferential flow channels. Experimental investigation was conducted to compare the promoting effects on bio-mineralization of reinforced sand with three pretreated fibers. Results showed that the fibers pretreated with CaCO 3 could fill the pores to bridge sand particles more effectively by aggregating bio-mineralized precipitates around them. The bacterial immobilization rate and calcium carbonate content of bio-cemented sands with fiber pretreatment remarkably increased with increasing fiber surface roughness characterized by fractal dimension (F d) when compared to the samples without pretreatment, and the maximum increase was 35.66% (coir, F d = 1.390) and 152.3% (jute, F d = 1.330). The profile water-conducting rate and average hydraulic conductivity have been reduced by 46% and 86%, Among the three fibers, ramie has the lowest hydraulic conductivity of 5.396 × 10 −8 m/s, which is lower than that of jute and coir (1.041 × 10 −7 m/s and 3.885 × 10 −7 m/s). Furthermore, the promotion of bacteria on bio-mineralization and more even distribution (upper, middle, and lower parts are 36%, 34%, and 30%, respectively) of CaCO 3 were confirmed through bacteria staining testing and dye tracer testing. Finally, the effects of average flow velocity and shear rate on bacterial immobilization and sealing of preferential flow channels are discussed.
... The contradiction between the current status of increasingly scarce water resources globally and the drinking water needs of 2 billion people will become more pronounced over time. 1 The spatial and temporal variability of rainfall and difficulty maintaining surface water bodies are inherent to the current situation and long-term dilemma in arid and semi-arid regions (ASARs). 2,3 People in arid and semi-arid regions often choose sandy soil as the foundation or building material when constructing hydraulic facilities such as dams, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, and the resulting sand dams are characterized by low cost and low evaporation. 4 However, 90% of sand dams built since 1970 have become unusable due to leakage problems because of the inherent high permeability of their sand bases. ...
... 4 However, 90% of sand dams built since 1970 have become unusable due to leakage problems because of the inherent high permeability of their sand bases. 2,5 In addition, permeability properties can also lead to the piping of sand dams under high head action, which results in sand particles being continuously carried away until collapse. [6][7][8] These reasons contribute to the low service life and water storage efficiency of sand dams. 2 Therefore, improving the permeability resistance of sand around sand dams has important water conservation significance. ...
... [6][7][8] These reasons contribute to the low service life and water storage efficiency of sand dams. 2 Therefore, improving the permeability resistance of sand around sand dams has important water conservation significance. Commonly used methods for sand-based permeability resistance treatment include compacted clay liners, bentonite liners, geomembranes, concrete covers, and polymer coatings. ...
This study explores the application of roughness pretreatment on plant-based natural fiber surfaces to enhance the sealing effectiveness of the sand-fiber interfacial. The technique roughens the reinforced material by presetting CaCO 3 seeds on the fiber surface, thereby immobilizing more bacteria as nucleation sites, further increasing the interfacial bonding area by promoting bio-mineralization and achieving efficient sealing of preferential flow channels. Experimental investigation was conducted to compare the promoting effects on bio-mineralization of reinforced sand with three pretreated fibers. Results showed that the fibers pretreated with CaCO 3 could fill the pores to bridge sand particles more effectively by aggregating bio-mineralized precipitates around them. The bacterial immobilization rate and calcium carbonate content of bio-cemented sands with fiber pretreatment remarkably increased with increasing fiber surface roughness characterized by fractal dimension (F d) when compared to the samples without pretreatment, and the maximum increase was 35.66% (coir, F d = 1.390) and 152.3% (jute, F d = 1.330). The profile water-conducting rate and average hydraulic conductivity have been reduced by 46% and 86%, Among the three fibers, ramie has the lowest hydraulic conductivity of 5.396 × 10 −8 m/s, which is lower than that of jute and coir (1.041 × 10 −7 m/s and 3.885 × 10 −7 m/s). Furthermore, the promotion of bacteria on bio-mineralization and more even distribution (upper, middle, and lower parts are 36%, 34%, and 30%, respectively) of CaCO 3 were confirmed through bacteria staining testing and dye tracer testing. Finally, the effects of average flow velocity and shear rate on bacterial immobilization and sealing of preferential flow channels are discussed.
... Groundwater is a prominent potable water resource for various uses for numerous peoples around the world, mainly in arid and semiarid regions (Besser et al., 2021;Ghiglieri et al., 2021;Yifru et al., 2021). Vast uses of groundwater in irrigation, industries and domestic sectors lead to groundwater depletion in the coastal regions and degraded water quality (Alshehri et al., 2021;Kammoun et al., 2021). ...
A systematic study was executed in the Wadi Fatimah basin, Saudi Arabia to appraise the hydrochemical processes, contamination sources and water quality using an integrated approach namely geochemical methods, multivariate statistical analyses and water quality indices. In this aquifer, the average value of electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids is 4292 µS/cm and 2747 mg/l, respectively. The predominant hydrochemical facies are CaMgCl followed by NaCl. Further, 76% (hardness), 51% (major ions and NO3−) and 15% (F−) of samples surpassed the World Health Organization-prescribed drinking water limit. The contamination index and drinking water quality index (DWQI) also reveal that 25% and 46% of samples are not appropriate for drinking application. Spatial maps of major ions, total hardness and DWQI depict that water quality is deteriorated from upstream to downstream and extreme values exist in the downstream. Gibbs plots, ionic ratios, Pearson correlation coefficient and principal component analysis justify that groundwater chemistry is predominantly affected by evaporation, evaporite dissolution and ion exchange reactions followed by mineral weathering. High NO3− originates from nitrification, irrigation return flow and wastewater recharge. Groundwater F− is derived from weathering of fluoride minerals and enhanced by evaporation. This study emphasizes that proper treatment is required for groundwater before distribution for various uses in this basin.
