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Map of the study area. (a) the Tuscany coast, with the indication of the study area (yellow line) and the location of the two continental shelf relict sand reservoirs (yellow squares: 1: Massa; 2: Piombino); (b) zoom-in of the study area: green and red lines indicate accretion and erosion areas respectively; the sites characterized by equilibrium are indicated with white lines; the red dots represent the location of the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio; the yellow triangles point out the approximate locations of the offshore dumping sites; the purple dots represent the borrow sites of shoreface dredging; the black numbers correspond to the 5 sub-cells in which the main littoral cell has been subdivided; the black arrows point out the direction of the littoral drifts.
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In the present study we describe a straightforward and highly replicable methodology to assess the anthropogenic sediment budget within a coastal system (the Northern Tuscany littoral cell, Italy), specifically selected in a partially natural and partially highly urbanized coastal area, characterized by erosion and accretion processes. The anthropo...
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... coastal sector under study belongs to the Northern Tuscany littoral cell, which is a 65 km long stretch of coast spanning from the Punta Bianca headland to the north and the Livornesi Mounts to the south ( Figure 1). We decided to focus attention on the northern part of the littoral cell, from the Magra River to the Arno River (approximately 50 km), as it corresponds to a convergent cell in terms of drift direction [48,49]. ...
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... decided to focus attention on the northern part of the littoral cell, from the Magra River to the Arno River (approximately 50 km), as it corresponds to a convergent cell in terms of drift direction [48,49]. Littoral drift is directed to the south from the Magra River mouth and to the north from the Arno River mouth, resulting in the formation of a convergence zone in the area of Marina di Pietrasanta ( Figure 1). South of the Arno River mouth the littoral drift is directed to the south, as wave processes related to the sea-floor morphological factors determine a divergent direction of the drifts on either side of the delta [50]. ...
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... coastal sector under study belongs to the Northern Tuscany littoral cell, which is a 65 km long stretch of coast spanning from the Punta Bianca headland to the north and the Livornesi Mounts to the south (Figure 1). We decided to focus attention on the northern part of the littoral cell, from the Magra River to the Arno River (approximately 50 km), as it corresponds to a convergent cell in terms of drift direction [48,49]. ...
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... decided to focus attention on the northern part of the littoral cell, from the Magra River to the Arno River (approximately 50 km), as it corresponds to a convergent cell in terms of drift direction [48,49]. Littoral drift is directed to the south from the Magra River mouth and to the north from the Arno River mouth, resulting in the formation of a convergence zone in the area of Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1). South of the Arno River mouth the littoral drift is directed to the south, as wave processes related to the sea-floor morphological factors determine a divergent direction of the drifts on either side of the delta [50]. ...
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... of the Arno River mouth the littoral drift is directed to the south, as wave processes related to the sea-floor morphological factors determine a divergent direction of the drifts on either side of the delta [50]. Figure 1. Map of the study area. ...
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... data acquisition from such devices is incomplete at times due to system malfunctions. However, the historical data show that both the most frequent waves and the strongest storms come from the same directions, with slight differences due to the respective geographical exposures: 210 • -250 • N at the La Spezia buoy and 220 • -260 • N at the Gorgona Island buoy (Figure 1a). The maximum values of the significant wave height (H s ) exceeded 7 m at both buoys. ...
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... study area is characterized by widespread erosion processes related to the reduction of sediments supplied by the Magra and Arno rivers during the last 150 years [67]. Locally, accretion areas can be identified along the littoral cell ( Figure 1b). Beach erosion started at the mouth of both the Arno and Magra rivers, and gradually spread on both sides (Arno) and to the south (Magra). ...
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... some sites, though, the thick, muddy level did not completely cover the sandy deposits: such sites were those selected as convenient locations for dredging activities, after a thorough environmental analysis [75]. Two large deposits (around 30 million m 3 ) were detected [76], one within the Northern Tuscany littoral cell (Massa) and one further to the south of the Tuscany coast (Piombino, Figure 1a). The Massa site is about 17-25 km off the Figure 2. A simplified sketch of the emerged and submerged beach profiles along the 5 sub-cells within the study area (not in scale). ...
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... some sites, though, the thick, muddy level did not completely cover the sandy deposits: such sites were those selected as convenient locations for dredging activities, after a thorough environmental analysis [75]. Two large deposits (around 30 million m 3 ) were detected [76], one within the Northern Tuscany littoral cell (Massa) and one further to the south of the Tuscany coast (Piombino, Figure 1a). The Massa site is about 17-25 km off the present coastline and at a variable depth of 46-100 m. ...
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... redistribution (transfer) within the cell has also been considered and listed but counted as neutral in terms of sediment budget computation. The whole cell has been subdivided into five smaller sub-cells in a further processing of the dataset ( Figure 1b): in this case sediment transfers from one sub-cell to another factored in the calculation of the sediment budget as sediment inputs and outputs. Sub-cell boundaries were pointed out based on anthropogenic (port structures and administrative borders) and natural (littoral drift convergence zone and limits of the main littoral cell) features. ...
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... Authorities used sand and gravel to refill the beaches updrift and downdrift of the Marina di Carrara and Viareggio ports. However, the majority of the interventions were made in the area situated between the Port of Marina di Carrara and Cinquale, where many coastal protection structures have been built over time (Figure 1). ...
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... Authorities used sand and gravel to refill the beaches updrift and downdrift of the Marina di Carrara and Viareggio ports. However, the majority of the interventions were made in the area situated between the Port of Marina di Carrara and Cinquale, where many coastal protection structures have been built over time (Figure 1). ...
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... main expression of sediment transfer is represented by the activities of bypassing coastal infrastructures carried out by the Authorities. These occurred at the major ports within the study area, i.e., Viareggio and Marina di Carrara (Figure 1b). These are centers of exceptional importance for the local communities in terms of recreational and commercial purposes, respectively. ...
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... sum of the other three sources (dredging practices of different sites: uphill Magra River, back-dune accumulations at Marina di Torre del Lago, shoreface near the harbor of Marina di Pisa) accounts for just 5% of the total. The largest nourishment projects have been carried out along sub-cells 1 and 2 (Figure 1b), where the erosion effects have been (and still are) harsher than elsewhere. Sub-cell 5 has also been hit hard by erosion processes, but no major protection schemes were implemented here as it is a natural site, with no human settlements to defend [69]. ...
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... 5 has also been hit hard by erosion processes, but no major protection schemes were implemented here as it is a natural site, with no human settlements to defend [69]. As a result, since 1980 the sector situated between the Magra River mouth and the Port of Marina di Carrara has been supplied with 517,900 m 3 , whereas 406,000 m 3 has been used for beach nourishment downdrift of the Port of Marina di Carrara, up to the Versilia River mouth (Figure 1b). Finally, just 87,100 m 3 have been used as beach fill in the area between the Port of Viareggio and the Arno River mouth, specifically in the sector south of the Morto Nuovo River mouth. ...
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... particular, just over 300,000 m 3 were removed from the Port of Marina di Carrara in a single capital dredging project in 1993, which accounted for a massive loss to the local sediment budget. This is the only offshore dumping activity ever reported occurring at Marina di Carrara since 1980 ( Figure 1b). Such practice was more frequently carried out at the Port of Viareggio, where 7 separate dredging operations led to offshore dumping of the material that was taken out of the harbor (Figure 1b). ...
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... is the only offshore dumping activity ever reported occurring at Marina di Carrara since 1980 ( Figure 1b). Such practice was more frequently carried out at the Port of Viareggio, where 7 separate dredging operations led to offshore dumping of the material that was taken out of the harbor (Figure 1b). Even though of short duration (between 1995 and 2001, one intervention per year), such actions ended up in a loss of almost 400,000 m 3 of sediments (an average of more than 50,000 m 3 each year). ...
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... of the main littoral cell and extent of sediment input, output and transfer. See Figure 1b for the location of sub-cell limits. Marina di Pietrasanta-Port of Viareggio 7300 0 −692,900 ± 3% 2,254,000 ± 3% −692,900 ± 3% 5 Port of Viareggio-Arno River mouth 20,400 87,100 ± 3% 0 10,200 ± 3% 87,100 ± 3% Total 49,600 1,011,000 ± 3% −1,254,900 ± 3% 2,949,800 ± 3% −243,900 ± 3% An additional examination of the results allows us to get a clear look at the sediment redistribution activities in the period 1980-2020 along the study area. ...
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... fact, while the touristic appeal of beaches affected by erosion processes is reduced or null, excessively wide backshores are not the best for beach goers either. This is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. ...
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... fact, while the touristic appeal of beaches affected by erosion processes is reduced or null, excessively wide backshores are not the best for beach goers either. This is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. ...
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... is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. ...
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... is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. ...
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... fact, while the touristic appeal of beaches affected by erosion processes is reduced or null, excessively wide backshores are not the best for beach goers either. This is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. ...
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... is the case with the beach at the ports of Marina di Carrara and Viareggio, whose updrift sectors have a width of about 150 and 350 m respectively (Figure 1; Figure 10). Likewise, the sand accumulating at the convergence area at Marina di Pietrasanta (Figure 1; Figure 10) might be redistributed to re-nourish the nearby suffering beaches. Another complementary option, related more to environmental issues, would be the backpassing of sediments from the Port of Viareggio to the natural reserved area of the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park. ...
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... complementary option, related more to environmental issues, would be the backpassing of sediments from the Port of Viareggio to the natural reserved area of the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park. This zone is located in the southern part of the study area (subcell 5) and is characterized by strong erosion processes that recently led to the destruction of a wide portion of the natural beach-dune system [70] (Figure 11). Another complementary option, related more to environmental issues, would be the back-passing of sediments from the Port of Viareggio to the natural reserved area of the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park. ...
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... complementary option, related more to environmental issues, would be the back-passing of sediments from the Port of Viareggio to the natural reserved area of the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park. This zone is located in the southern part of the study area (sub-cell 5) and is characterized by strong erosion processes that recently led to the destruction of a wide portion of the natural beach-dune system [70] (Figure 11). Sand redistribution is a delicate practice that requires more studies, analyses and strict monitoring to evaluate the efficiency and the performance of completed projects. ...
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... the choice of approach basically depends upon the set of data available. Within the study area, the dataset existing for regular intervals of time comes from a buoyant wave-meter located offshore of the Gorgona Island ( Figure 1a). For this reason, the depth of closure has been estimated by applying Hallermeier's formula [86]. ...
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Citations
... The delta, resulting from lagoon filling and subsequent progradation due to the Arno River's solid discharge over the last 2500 years, experienced significant growth between the 17th and 19th centuries. This was due to river waterworks, which led to the delta's current asymmetrical shape and erosion (Della Rocca et al., 1987;Pranzini, 2001;Cappucci et al., 2020). Presently, the area near the Arno River mouth is retreating, while accretion occurs toward the northern end (Bini et al., 2021). ...
Coastal dunes play a crucial role in mitigating sea-related impacts and safeguarding coastlines. However, increasing human influence and natural factors such as sea-level rise underscore the need for effective coastal risk assessment methodologies. This study introduces a comprehensive coastal risk index covering 24 km of the Italian coastline within the protected area of San Rossore Park (Tuscany, Italy). The study area, distinguished by its notable coastal dune ecosystems, holds naturalistic, cultural, and economic importance. Nevertheless, diverse uses, zoning, and human impact variables pose challenges. By incorporating geological, socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological parameters, the index integrates a range of data sources and field observations. This research focused on developing and applying a vegetation-based risk index (VRI) within a geographic information system (GIS) framework, recognizing the ecological importance of dune vegetation in mitigating coastal erosion. Analysis: revealed varying risk levels within the study area. Half of the San Rossore Park coastline exhibited low risk values, 37.5% had moderate risk values, and 12.5% had high risk values. The publicly accessible north-ernmost section displays excellent preservation of dune habitats but faces heightened risk due to anthropogenic impacts. Conversely, the central-southern portion, inaccessible to the public, registers high-risk levels linked to variables associated with coastal erosion. Furthermore, the results highlight areas with heightened cultural and ecological vulnerabilities aligned with elevated risk levels. The index facilitates clear and intuitive cartographic representations of coastal risk, identifying variable categories that substantially influence on risk determination. Tailored strategies, including mitigating human pressure in the northern sector and implementing erosion management in the central-southern region, are recommended. In summary, this study not only provides a practical tool for assessing and managing coastal areas and directing attention to specific threats but also supports stakeholders in informed decision-making. The VRI enhances global sustainable coastal conservation, deepening our understanding of coastal risks and providing valuable insights for effective management strategies.
... Sediment budgets concept has often been used to identify sediment sources and sinks by applying the main conservation of mass equation using various methods (Reid & Dunne, 2016;Clifton et al., 2022). The concept emphasizes that a system's overall balance is determined by the sediment inputs and outputs, which frequently indicates how much erosion or accumulation has affected the reservoir's morphology (Cappucci et al., 2020). A system has a positive budget when its inputs exceed its outputs, and a negative budget when its outputs exceed its inputs (Cappucci et al., 2020;Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018). ...
... The concept emphasizes that a system's overall balance is determined by the sediment inputs and outputs, which frequently indicates how much erosion or accumulation has affected the reservoir's morphology (Cappucci et al., 2020). A system has a positive budget when its inputs exceed its outputs, and a negative budget when its outputs exceed its inputs (Cappucci et al., 2020;Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018). Thus, a framework for organizing both qualitative information about process interactions and quantitative information of process rates is provided by sediment budgets (Amasi et al., 2021;Fisher, 2020;Lemma et al., 2020). ...
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... Although the identified activities and tools could not be finalized as part of the ARCH project, being out of the scope and budget, the identified pathway is deemed to be very interesting for future implementation in València and similar natural landscapes. As such the results of this activity have been summarized in the Annex B included in this Deliverable D3.5 and in different scientific publications [20], [21]. In the table below the questions and answers after the mentimer survey (a screenshot in the figure below) that was lunched after the ARCH DSS secondo workshop on co-creation and where the answers from 5 participants were collated and averaged. ...
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... Rivers are the primary source of sediments on coasts. Previous studies have quantitatively estimated fluvial sediment discharge [1,4] and assessed the impact of its alterations, due to dam construction and river sediment mining, on the coastal morphology and sediment budget [5,6]. During flood events, sediments of different sizes (silt, sand, and gravel) are discharged from river mouths. ...
This study discusses the coastal sediment budget for the Ishikawa coast using 12 years of observational datasets; it involves an understanding the local and regional sediment dynamics, the intensity of the transport processes in the region, and sediment supply from a local river. Although alongshore sediment transport and sediment budgets have been analyzed in previous studies, only a few conducted cross-shore sediment transport evaluations. The concentration of suspended sediments will be determined in this study, taking into account the influence of waves that are associated with the coastal current. The cross-shore sediment transport using sediment budget analysis indicated that the net alongshore sediment transport directions in the surf and offshore zones are opposite on the Ishikawa coast. The increase in the sediment budget of the surf zone can be attributed to the river sediment supply and longshore sediment transport inflow. Because of the significant outflow components of longshore and cross-shore sediment transports, the offshore zone budget showed a decreasing trend. A detailed sensitivity study was performed by varying the input parameters, in order to determine the possible ranges of net transport rates and sediment transport to the adjacent coasts. The results demonstrated the possibility of a clockwise residual sediment circulation. Our method can be used to analyze the alongshore sediment transport for other coasts and supplement future studies on coastal sedimentology and sediment budgets.
... As a matter of fact, [42] introduced the concept of "anthropogenic sub-cells" to explain the modification of sediment distribution in specific sectors of the littoral cell. Recent data [95] point out that in the last 40 years the anthropogenic sedimentary budget has been negative for 243,900 m 3 due to inland activities, such as river damming, mountain slope reforestation, and river-bed dredging. However, this value is negligible compared to the amount of sediment dredged from the Magra River between 1958-1973, which was reportedly about 24 million cubic meters [96]. ...
A multidisciplinary approach to coastal process research has been increasingly encouraged in the last decade, and it is now widely accepted for a thorough, in-depth analysis of any issue related to such an environment. In this study, we emphasized the need for the integration of different time-scales, not just disciplines. Many geological datasets provided by several sources contribute to the knowledge of coastal processes. We retrieved the available datasets about morphodynamic, geomorphological, and geological aspects of the northern Tuscany (Italy) littoral cell, and we merged all of them with QGIS (Quantum Geographic Information System) applications to provide an assessment of the current situation starting from a geological perspective. Data processing resulted in maps and stratigraphic sections that confirmed that sediment supply is the main factor driving the evolution of the littoral cell. Such a perspective is also useful for the development of reliable coastal evolution future scenarios, not just for a better definition of the present situation. As these datasets are now available for many sectors of coast around the world, this approach may be easily replicated elsewhere to improve coastal management policy making.
... This sediment cell approach is the basis of a reasonably effective strategy for shoreline management. With the latest developments, coastal development and human activities will put pressure on the beach so that anthropogenic affects the mapping of sediment cells (Cappucci et al., 2020). Estimating sediment budget due to anthropogenic effects is still challenging and essential to a coastal management policy. ...
The dynamics of the coastal cell boundary in the Cirebon coast have been investigated. The edge of the sediment cell is unique, with a river mouth and very active shoreline movement. A groin-like structure model with the sediment output at the end of the structure is solved analytically using Laplace transforms methods. The morphological changes of these cell sediment boundaries were analyzed using modeling, field measurements, and Landsat satellite data. The study area consists of a single cell with boundaries of fine sediments containing coral fractions. The middle cell is generally a beach with mangroves with fish or a salt pond beach. The observations using Landsat imagery from 1978 to 2021 show changes in the boundary of sediment cells moving forward to the west as far as 1230 m. We use 1985 as the initial cell boundary for our modeling, with a cell boundary length of 1200 m from the shoreline. The first scenario with constant sediment rate input get shoreline changes from 1100 m from the cell boundary. Still, a linear sediment rate results in the coastline moving upward to 1190 m. The third scenario with periodic sediment input with a monsoon period gives a coastline addition of 750 m at the estuary of the cell boundary and erosion (240 m) in an area far from the cell boundary. The Montecarlo simulation generates a breaking wave with a Gaussian random function that produces a breaking wave height with a dominant variation between 0.5 - 1.5 m. The evolution of the coastline with a constant sediment rate resulted in the most developed beach as far as 1000 m with a relatively large chance of reaching 4000. As for the linear rate, producing a coastline with the highest probability of about 1200 m and periodic sediment rates created the most significant for the coastline between 1000 - 2500 m.
... This cell is characterized by two littoral currents (Fig. 1A), one with a southward direction (from the Magra river mouth to Pietrasanta) and the other one with a northward direction (from the river Arno mouth to Marina di Pietrasanta (Cipriani et al., 2001;Bertoni et al., 2021), which generate a convergence zone in front of Marina di Pietrasanta. This convergence results from the interaction of incident wave motion and different bathymetry and coastline orientation between the northern and southern sectors of the coastal cell compared to dominant wave (Cappucci et al., 2020). Unfortunately, published data on the longshore current velocity for Marina di Pietrasanta are not available. ...
... This suggests that processes acting at greater scales than peri-urban ones, such as currents and major river run-off, could be responsible for beach pollution. Indeed, Marina di Pietrasanta beach lies at the convergence point of two littoral currents which transport sediments from two major rivers, Magra and Arno, allowing this beach to strongly accrete in time (up to 100 m in the past century; Cipriani et al., 2001;Cappucci et al., 2020;Bertoni et al., 2021). Recent studies have shown that these rivers also introduce large quantities of litter into the sea (i.e., more than 26,000 and 263,000 items on average per year, respectively; . ...
... Recent studies have shown that these rivers also introduce large quantities of litter into the sea (i.e., more than 26,000 and 263,000 items on average per year, respectively; . Studies on sediment provenance and redistribution revealed that the Magra and Arno rivers greatly contribute to longshore transports as their average volume of sand transported can be up to 100,000 m 3 /year and 40,000 m 3 /year, respectively (Cappucci et al., 2020). Since several shoes and textile industries are in inland areas close to Serchio and Arno rivers, the presence of shoes and sandals stranded on Marina di Pietrasanta beach suggests that a portion of these items entered the sea from these rivers and then accumulated on the beach by the southern longshore current of northern Tuscany littoral cell during storms with waves with south-west direction. ...
Beach litter can affect public health and economic activities worldwide forcing local authorities to expensive beach cleaning. Understanding the key mechanisms affecting the accumulation of this waste on beaches, such as sea state and proximity to entry points, is critical to plan effective management strategies. In this one-year study, we estimated the impact of storm events and waterways runoff on litter abundance and local economy using as a model a managed, peri-urban beach facing a north-western sector of the Mediterranean Sea. We also investigated the relationship between litter composition/density and beach proximity to major/closest harbors/rivers at regional scale by combining our data with those on litter density available in literature. Autumn/winter storms caused larger litter depositions than spring/summer ones in the peri-urban beach. No preferential accumulation occurred near to waterway mouths. Litter mainly consisted of plastic, and its composition in terms of micro-categories varied over seasons. In total, 367,070 items were deposited along 4.7 km of beach over one year, and the cost for the removal of this waste amounted to approximately 27,600 euros per km/year. At regional scale, beach litter density was positively correlated to the proximity of major harbors while its composition was related to the proximity to both major harbors and rivers. Results indicate that autumn/winter storms are important drivers of marine litter deposition. They also suggest that beaches in front of the convergence zone of littoral currents and close to major harbors can be particularly subjected to this kind of pollutant. To increase their effectiveness, litter mitigation/cleaning activities should be planned based on predictions of major storm events and performed at spatial scales encompassing at least coastal regional sectors.
... These can be used to produce further information on the local wave climate and extreme regimes, estimate the potential sediment transport along the coast, design maritime structures, evaluate the operativity of coastal infrastructures, etc. Thus, the availability of a reliable, punctual, updated definition of nearshore wave climates can be very useful to support the numerous relevant activities related to integrated coastal management and policies [22,23]. In particular, it can also support the important remote sensing monitoring of beach bedforms, which are also ongoing within the area of interest in the considered geographical area [24], and in the management of sediment produced by dredging and disposal on-off-shore [25]. ...
Hindcasted wind and wave data, available on a coarse resolution global grid (Copernicus ERA5 dataset), are downscaled by means of the numerical model SWAN (simulating waves in the nearshore) to produce time series of wave conditions at a high resolution along the Italian coasts in the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In order to achieve the proper spatial resolution along the coast, the finite element version of the model is used. Wave data time series at the ERA5 grid are used to specify boundary conditions for the wave model at the offshore sides of the computational domain. The wind field is fed to the model to account for local wave generation. The modeled sea states are compared against the multiple wave records available in the area, in order to calibrate and validate the model. The model results are in quite good agreement with direct measurements, both in terms of wave climate and wave extremes. The results show that using the present modeling chain, it is possible to build a reliable nearshore wave parameters database with high space resolution. Such a database, once prepared for coastal areas, possibly at the national level, can be of high value for many engineering activities related to coastal area management, and can be useful to provide fundamental information for the development of operational coastal services.
... A convergenc zone can be pointed out here as the drift coming from the Magra River runs into the north ward-directed drift coming from the Arno River [40,41]. A second convergence zone gen erates farther to the south, in Calambrone, where the southward-directed drift comin Sea floor profile is not uniform in terms of slope along the cell, as the sectors mainly affected by human activities are locally characterized by configurations owed to the presence of hard protection structures [20,41]. The natural nearshore slope is about 1% [36]. ...
... The detailed reconstruction of hard (e.g., breakwaters, groins, port structures) and soft interventions (e.g., nourishments, artificial dunes) along the Northern Tuscany littoral cell has been completed through a careful revision of the scientific literature [44][45][46][47][48]. As an impressive variety of activities was made on this sector of the Tuscany coast in the last 150 years, and in particular in the last 4 decades [20], many details about them were not available on scientific papers. The archives of the Region of Tuscany have been combed through to collect any document reporting information about protection schemes and nourishments. ...
... However, once the coastline reached the tip of the breakwater, sediments began overpassing the structures [54], thus creating an additional issue related to the siltation of the harbor. Regular dredging operations are required to maintain the access way to the harbor clear [20,55]. The downdrift beach suffered especially in the earlier years, but the erosion processes in Viareggio were never as harsh as in Marina di Carrara. ...
In this paper the evolution of the Northern Tuscany littoral cell is documented through a detailed analysis of the increasing anthropogenic pressure since the beginning of the 20th century. This sector of the Tuscany coast has been experiencing strong erosion effects that resulted in the loss of large volumes of sandy beaches. The anthropogenic impact on natural processes have been intensified by the construction of two ports in the early decades of the 20th century. Competent authorities reacted by building hard protection structures that tried to fix the position of the shoreline but offset the erosion drive downdrift. Therefore, in the last 20 years a regional Plan was undertaken to gradually replace the hard defense schemes with a softer approach, which involved a massive use of sediment redistribution activities. Many nourishments have been done ever since, using both sand and gravel. All these hard and soft protection operations have been archived in a geodatabase, and visualized in maps that clearly show the progressive change from hard to soft defense. This database may improve the approach to any future analysis of the littoral cell both in terms of research and management, while providing a practical example that may be easily replicated elsewhere.
... The areas most affected by erosion are located in the hydrographic right (Area A, Figure 2c and the area northward of the Morto Nuovo River, Figure 2a). In the hydrographic left (where erosion has been countered by several engineering interventions such as groins and breakwaters [22,27,28,49]) the total area eroded is less in extent compared with Area A, but the erosion is persistent in the area marked B in Figure 2c. Coastal progradation has been documented mainly in the C area of the southern sector ( Table 1. ...
Coastal erosion coupled with human-induced pressure has severely affected the coastal areas of the Mediterranean region in the past and continues to do so with increasing intensity today. In this context, the Pisa coastal plain shows a long history of erosion, which started at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In this work, shoreline positions derived from historical maps as well as airborne and DGPS (Differential Global Positioning System) surveys were analyzed in a GIS (Geographic Information System) environment to identify the main changes that have occurred in the last 142 years. These analyses were compared with 100 years of discharge data measured at the S. Giovanni alla Vena gauge to identify a possible correlation between the two sets of information. Finally, Sentinel-2 and Landsat images were studied to identify the dispersion of sediments transported by the Arno River. In particular, we found a minimum of fluvial discharge in the years 1954, 1978, and 2012 corresponding to a peak of erosion, while the reduced erosion rate and the fluvial discharge increased in the years 1928–1944, 1954–1975, and after 2012. The qualitative anticorrelation between discharge and erosion is particularly true if we take into account flood events with a value of discharge greater than 700 m3/s, which are those able to transport suspended sand. The remote sensing analyses of Sentinel-2 images acquired during the floods of 6 February 2019 and 3 December 2019, under the most typical wind and sea state conditions for this area (wind coming from SW and storms coming from W/SW and SW) show that during these events a consistent amount of sediment was transported by the river. However, the majority of these sediments are not deposited along the coastline but are dispersed offshore. Grain-size analyses on the transported sediment show that plumes are formed by coarse-to-medium sand, suitable for coastal nourishment, but the reconstructed sediment dispersion lines show that some sectors of the coastline are constantly in the shade. These areas are the most affected by erosion.
