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Map of the Republic of Kazakhstan showing the location of the LBA sites under consideration within the territorial boundary of central Kazakhstan. The site at Bozshakol (BSK) is located near arrow A while
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The Late Bronze Age in central Kazakhstan may be considered an incubation time for significant social and political changes that would soon transpire with the coming of the Early Iron Age. In seeking material evidence that might predict the imminence of such changes, differences in technology and artifact makeup were noted in the visual and microsc...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... (Park et al. forthcoming), a similar methodology was applied to the investigation of LBA bronze objects in the hope of finding evidence, if any, forecasting the emergence of notable changes in the following EIA era. The bronze assemblages offered for examination were recovered from the archeological expeditions to the LBA sites at Bozshakol (Fig. 1), all located within the territorial boundary of central ...
Context 2
... bronze objects under investigation were recovered from three different LBA sites at BSK, SAN, and MRZ of central Kazakhstan. The BSK site, marked by arrow A in Fig. 1, a general map of the Republic of Kazakhstan, is approximately 250 km to the northeast of the capital city of Astana, forming the northern boundary of central Kazakhstan. The BSK region is well known for the nu- merous open-pit copper mines that have long been exploited since the beginning of the Bronze Age (Berdenov 2008). The BSK ...
Context 3
... two sites at SAN and MRZ are close to each other and positioned near the spot marked by arrow B in Fig. 1. The site at MRZ was a settlement from which the bronze objects presented at the bottom of Fig. 2 were excavated along with remains of multiple furnaces and numerous ceramic fragments. Similar to the settlement at BSK, this site also was evidently engaged in bronze-related activities including the smelting of copper and the production ...
Similar publications
A bronze assemblage consisting of weapons, tools, ornaments, and horse furnishings from many Early Iron Age (EIA) sites of Central Kazakhstan was examined for microstructure and chemical compositions. All of the objects under investigation were made of copper alloys with the addition of either tin or arsenic or both, but no lead. Tin served as the...
Citations
... Many ancient mines, metal-bearing settlements, and burial grounds of the Late and Final Bronze Age have been discovered here [4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Many works are devoted to the study of metal products of the Late Bronze Age of Central Kazakhstan, which highlight the chemical and isotopic composition of the metal, metalworking technologies, and suggest possible sources of copper ores and alloying additives [11][12][13][14][15][16]. Studies of the mineralogy and composition of metallurgical slags in the region are represented by single works, which is due to the small number of slag finds in settlements [12,13,17,18]. ...
Investigation of the mineralogy and geochemical features of copper metallurgical slags and ore fragments from the settlements Kent, Kamal, Saurambay, and Shokpartas in Central Kazakhstan of the Final Bronze Age is carried out. AMS radiocarbon dates are obtained for the Saurambay (3170 ± 20 BP) and Kamal (2890 ± 20 BP) settlements, which determine their metallurgical horizon at the Final Bronze Age. Most of the metal smelted in the settlements is copper, often with admixtures of Fe and Mn. Sporadic smelting was carried out to obtain Sn−As and As−Sb bronzes. For the smelting of copper, oxidized ore concentrates were used to a greater extent, with the minor importance of sulfide ores. The impurities of manganese in the slag and manganese ore fragments at the Saurambay and Shokpartas settlements testify to the active use of manganese minerals as fluxes.
... Examinations indicated that the holes and voids in separate parts of the surface of the archaeological bronze bowl emerged as a result of using high temperatures and the presence of the bronze disease, which consumes the inner metal and leads to the occurrence of these holes and voids. 32 Corrosion layers of bronze disease weakens the bronze bowl in different regions, especially in the flat part of the bowl nozzle (the flat edges of the bowl), which led to the loss of parts of the bowl edges. On the other hand, it is possible that the missing parts of the bowl were lost because of the use process during kneading operations, which is the purpose of making the bowl or while holding the bowl when it was full. ...
DETERIORATION AND CONSERVATION OF AN
ABSTRACT
An Assyrian bronze kneading bowel is
preserved in the storage area of the Jordanian
Heritage Museum. Its diameter is 37 cm, and
the height is 16 cm. The bronze bowl suffered
from many corrosion forms, as different
corrosion layers
bronze disease appears in different parts,
damaging
and holes in
corrosion layers were studied using Light
Optical Microscope (LOM), Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM), X
and (EDX). Analyses indicated that atacamite
and paratacamite minerals were the main
components in the corrosion samples in addition
to quartz and cuprite minerals. Treatment and
conservation of the bronze bowl included
mechanical and chemica
electrochemical reduction was used to remove
the bronze disease as hydrogen ions reduced
these compounds and convert them into water
soluble compounds.
dammar, and colophony resin was used to fill
the holes in t
edges. Finally, the bronze bowl was isolated
using benzotriazole 3%.
KEYWORDS
Bronze, Kneading Bowl, Bronze Disease, Corrosion,
Conservation
Fayoum University
DETERIORATION AND CONSERVATION OF AN
ASSYRIAN BRONZE KNEADING BOWL
... Holes formed by chloride ions in the archaeological bowl were removed mechanically with the use of metal needles, magnifying glass, while ensuring that the metal is not scratched. 20 The chloride compounds were removed using localized electrochemical reduction by placing zinc powder in these pits or holes with formic acid in a concentration of 5%. The released hydrogen reduces these compounds into soluble compounds (1). ...
... Examination with a scanning electron microscope revealed eroded parts, pit corroborates the results of the X of atacamite and paratacamite minerals and the cause of bronze disease, which takes the form of localized corrosion in the form of pits and cavities immediately visible Odnevall Wallinder I, Zhang X, Goidanich S, Le Bozec N, Herting G, Leygraf C., Corrosion and runoff rates of Cu and three Cualloys in marine environments with increasing chloride deposition rate. Sci Total Environ 472: (20 Pan C, Lv W, Wang Z, SuW,Wang C, Liu S Atmospheric corrosion of copper exposed in a simulated coastal-industrial atmosphere. J Mater Sci Technol 33(6 Deterioration and conservation of an Assyrian bronze kneading bowl ...
... This scale of production would have required annual felling of 150 ha of woodland, up to seven times the size of Kargaly, which stands in stark contrast to the paltry 2.6% of forest coverage of Kargaly today (Díaz del Rio et al., 2006). And yet Kargaly was one of at least six Bronze Age mining centres of a similar size in the Eurasian Steppe at the time, including Askaraly in east Kazakhstan, Dzhezkazgan in central Kazakhstan, Bozshakol in northeast Kazakhstan, Kendyktas Plateau in south Kazakhstan or Zerafshan Valley mines in Uzbekistan (Alimov et al., 1998;Berdenov, 2008;Boroffka et al. 2002;Park et al., 2020;Stöllner et al., 2011). ...
The results and experiences gained from the multidisciplinary and holistic approaches underlying the Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project provide an opportunity, not only to reflect on programmes of further research in the Balkans, but also on scholarship in early metallurgy across the world. This chapter outlines what might be usefully taken forward from this project, but also seeks to highlight gaps in our understandings that could be addressed. It is by no means a comprehensive agenda for global early metallurgy studies but is instead intended to stimulate further debate and discussions that lead to new programmes of research.
... Examinations indicated that the holes and voids in separate parts of the surface of the archaeological bronze bowl emerged as a result of using high temperatures and the presence of the bronze disease, which consumes the inner metal and leads to the occurrence of these holes and voids. 32 Corrosion layers of bronze disease weakens the bronze bowl in different regions, especially in the flat part of the bowl nozzle (the flat edges of the bowl), which led to the loss of parts of the bowl edges. On the other hand, it is possible that the missing parts of the bowl were lost because of the use process during kneading operations, which is the purpose of making the bowl or while holding the bowl when it was full. ...
An Assyrian bronze kneading bowel is preserved in the storage area of the Jordanian Heritage Museum. Its diameter is 37 cm, and the height is 16 cm. The bronze bowl suffered from many corrosion forms, as different corrosion layers are visible on the surface. The bronze disease appears in different parts, damaging parts of the edges of the bronze bowl, and holes in the bowl’s body. Samples of corrosion layers were studied using Light Optical Microscope (LOM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X- Ray diffraction (XRD), and (EDX). Analyses indicated that atacamite and paratacamite minerals were the main components in the corrosion samples in addition to quartz and cuprite minerals. Treatment and conservation of the bronze bowl included mechanical and chemical cleaning. Localized electrochemical reduction was used to remove the bronze disease as hydrogen ions reduced these compounds and convert them into water-soluble compounds. A mixture of beeswax, dammar, and colophony resin was used to fill the holes in the bowl body and to complete the edges. Finally, the bronze bowl was isolated using benzotriazole 3%.
... Another important transition was also observed in the frequent use of lead in bronze alloys, reflecting increased influence from China with the rise of the Xiongnu state. Another significant example can be seen in the analytical investigation of copper and bronze objects excavated from the late Andronovo metallurgical sites at Bozshakol (BSK), Sangyru (SAN), and Myrzhyk (MRZ) in Central Kazakhstan (Park et al. 2020). These LBA bronze assemblages revealed notable diachronic changes that occurred in local bronze technology before the dawn of the Early Iron Age. ...
... First, the addition of arsenic as the major alloying element in copper constituted a new era, which began with the coming of the Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan. This fact is confirmed in analytical studies on bronze objects from certain LBA sites such as at Bozshakol, Sangyru, and Myrzhyk (Park et al. 2020), all within the territorial boundary of Central Kazakhstan (Fig. 1). Another fact of significance is the unusually high level of arsenic added to copper, up to around 10.0%, which allows γ particles to be precipitated as a second phase in their microstructures, often accompanied by the formation of speiss particles. ...
A bronze assemblage consisting of weapons, tools, ornaments, and horse furnishings from many Early Iron Age (EIA) sites of Central Kazakhstan was examined for microstructure and chemical compositions. All of the objects under investigation were made of copper alloys with the addition of either tin or arsenic or both, but no lead. Tin served as the preferred alloying element for making key functional and prestige items as opposed to arsenic primarily in service to meet a large demand for various horse trappings. Strong evidence has been found of a new method implemented for the mass production of copper alloys containing up to approximately 10% arsenic based on mass. This high arsenic technology was apparently introduced in keeping with the increased demand for bronze, particularly in horse-related objects, as a means to spare costly tin for use in making more important objects in functional and social perspectives. The use of arsenic in this case is indicative of significant technological and social transformations occurring in Central Asian EIA communities. We will present a detailed account of the analytical results to propose that these changes signified the establishment of mature mobility-based societies in the steppes that encompassed more people and larger territories within a setting of enhanced conflicts and social stratification.
The data of the metallographic study of sickles and knives (37 pcs) of the Petrovka Culture from the Southern Trans-Urals and the Middle Tobol River basin of the 19th–18th centuries BC are reported. The implements originate from settlements (Ustye 1, Kulevchi 3, Starokumlyak, Kamyshnoe 2, Ubagan 2, Nizhneingaly 3) and burial complexes (Ozernoe 1, Krivoye Ozero, Verkhnyaya Alabuga). The reconstruction of the manufacturing technology of the Petrovka Culture tools from the Southern Trans-Urals was carried out by both taking into account the results of the surface visual inspection, as well as by the data of the microstructural study of the metal. The metallographic analysis was conducted at the Tyumen Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the RAS (microscope Axio Observer D1m from Zeiss; microhardness tester PMT-3M from LOMO). A certain correla-tion was revealed between the functional purpose of the product, type of the raw material, and the tool manufacturing flowchart. The sickles and knives with handles are produced primarily from pure copper (including oxidised) both in the process of casting in mould with subsequent finishing, as well as in the result of the forming forging. The tools obtained in the casting process often had casting defects, accompanied by the phenomenon of shrinking warpage of the metal. The finishing of the copper tools was taking place in most cases either in the regime of incomplete hot forging at 300–500 C, or hot forging at 600–800 C and at near-melting temperatures of 900–1000 C. Most of the sickles in the forging process were purposefully hardened by forging on the cold metal. Unlike the sickles and knives with handles, shank knives are made mainly of low-alloyed tin bronze. Apparently, this category of tools was given a special ritual significance, especially considering the fact that about a third of the tools came from burial complexes with a specific selection of the related implements. The use of tin bronze in the production of knives sig-nificantly contributed to the fabrication of high-quality castings with the smooth surface without metal warping defects. The fini-shing of the knives after casting was carried out with heating up to 600–800 C or 900–1000 C (44 % of the tools) or in the regime of incomplete hot forging (25 %). The forging on the cold metal with annealing was rarely used. Thus, at the basis of the choice of the technological traditions of the metal production lies the availability of a certain raw material base, the type of the metal obtained from this ore, as well as the inheritance of the technologies from the preceding cultural communities. Technological inno-vations in the processing of non-ferrous metal, associated with the supply of Sn-bronzes in the form of ingots or finished products from Central Kazakhstan to the Southern Trans-Urals, led to the significant increase in the quality of the produce.
The problem of the beginning of iron production in the Late Bronze Age of the Ural-Kazakhstan region is dis-cussed. For this, 13 iron-bearing artefacts from nine settlements that functioned in the 2nd mil. BC were studied using the SEM-EDS and LA-ICP-MS methods: metal objects, metallurgical slags, and a bimetallic droplet. Most of the studied artefacts are not related to the iron metallurgy. High ferric impurities in copper metal products of the Late Bronze Age on the territory of the Southern Trans-Urals are caused by the use of iron-rich ore concentrates. The raw materials for these products were represented by mixed oxidized-sulphide ores from the cementation subzone of the volcanogenic massive sulphide and skarn copper deposits. Iron droplets, frequently found in the Late Bronze Age copper slag in the Ural-Kazakhstan region, are not directly related to iron metallurgy. They are by-products of the copper metallurgy formed in the process of copper extraction from the iron-rich components of the furnace charge or fluxes (brown iron ore, iron sulphides). The only artefacts that indicate direct smelting of metal from iron ore are the slag fragments from the Kent settlement. Presumably, oxidized martitized ore of the Kentobe skarn deposit or its nearby analogues was used to extract iron at the Kent settlement. Rare finds of iron slags from the Late Bronze Age, known only in the territory of Central Kazakhstan, confirm an extremely small scale of iron production. Iron ore had been already deliberately used for these experiments. However, iron metal-lurgy in the Ural-Kazakhstan region developed into a mature industry much later. The discovery of iron metallurgy based on the smelting of copper-sulphide ores in the Ural-Kazakhstan steppes is doubtful. The use of sulphide ores here is known from the 20th c. BC, and it was widespread. In the meantime, the first iron slags and products appear much later, and their finds are sporadic. The development of iron metallurgy on the basis of experiments with iron ores seems more likely.
