Figure 9 - uploaded by Arthur Bernard Knapp
Content may be subject to copyright.
1 Map of the Mediterranean showing the location of principal ore deposits. Map drawn by Vasiliki Kassianidou
Source publication
This chapter contains section titled:
Citations
... The so-called 'Ingot Gods' found at Enkomi and Kourion represent the first indicators of a tight relationship between ritual and metallurgy (Kassianidou and Knapp 2005): upon their discovery these bronze statuettes, representing both male and female deities standing on oxhide ingots-shaped bases, were immediately interpreted as tutelary deities protecting miners and smelters. Interestingly, the goddess was interpreted as a symbolic representation of the fecundity of Cypriot mines by some scholars, echoing the fertility symbolism previously analyzed (Kieburg 2006). ...
... One of the rooms excavated by V. Karageorghis had direct access to the main cultic building, and the team found not only in situ metallurgical debris but also ritual paraphernalia, suggesting that rites were performed also within the spaces devoted to metal production. Similar evidence was uncovered at the site of Athienou, where a sanctuary in use between the 16 th and the 12 th centuries BC revealed traces of smelting activities, and at Myrtou, Idalion, Enkomi, and Hala Sultan Tekke (Kassianidou and Knapp 2005). B. Knapp and J. Webb have recognized five indicators of the rituality of Cypriote LBA metallurgy, from the Ingot Gods and the bronze miniature inscribed ingots 8 to the location of workshops within ritual spaces (Knapp 1986). ...
The archaeological discourse on the development of metallurgy in Anatolia, the Levant and, more generally, the Eastern Mediterranean region has extensively focused on crucial aspects such as procurement routes, technological developments, manufacturing strategies, and socio-economic connotations of metal consumption. On the other hand, potential symbolic and ritualistic aspects permeating mining and metal-making activities have rarely been taken into consideration, largely due to the ephemerality of such traditions and practices in the material record. Extensive studies have analyzed the ritual dimensions of iron and copper metalworking across different belief systems and social structures, from pre-industrial sub-Saharan Africa to pre-classical Andean cultures, from Bronze Age Central Europe to China. Drawing on the contemporary anthropological and archaeological debate on the subject, this contribution identifies and analyzes recurrent semantics of ritualization in metalworking processes, looking at different lines of epigraphic and material evidence from the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean. The aim is to discuss patterns of correlation between belief systems, ritual behavior, and socioeconomic organizations and to prompt more comprehensive analyses on the complementary technological and symbolic aspects of ancient metallurgical practices.
... , --, , (Kassianidou, Knapp 2004). ...
The beginning period of the Bronze Age is featured by both active cultural and historical processes, and cultural transformations. Usatovo Culture that is included into Western Pontic cultural horizon, turns out to be related to Southern-Eastern Europe and Anatolia with their technical achievements. Meanwhile, the population develops metal¬lurgic traditions of its own. Partnership is mainly based on salt trade. Salt is produced in the estuaries of the Black Sea region that has been proved by the relics of cultic and industrial centers (Usatovo, Mayaki). The other trade way was the Dniester, which connected the population with the Tripolye as well as steppe with forest-steppe. The Usatovo tribes can be seen as the first salters in the Southern-Western Black Sea Region, whose activity was reflected in ar¬chaeological artifacts. The Region as it is should be considered as a unique natural object and a vast salt production area; its development has contributed into cultural process in different historical epochs.
... Due to the visibility and preservation -and abundance -of the evidence for metal ores and metal objects from distant sources, the metal trade is seen as a cornerstone of the ancient economy, and underlying mechanism powering ancient long-distance trade (Beaujard, 2018;Kassianidou & Knapp, 2005;Ling et al., 2019;Radivojević et al., 2018;Sabatini & Lo Schiavo, 2020;Vandkilde, 2016Vandkilde, , 2019Vandkilde, , 2021. Without a doubt, trade in metal, and other non-organic "prestige objects" played a central role in ancient trade, and there was a complex social and ideological narratives associated with these objects (Boivin et al., 2012;Feldman, 2002Feldman, , 2014Hahn & Weis, 2013;Helms, 1988;Knapp, 2022;Kristiansen, 2018;Maran, 2011Maran, , 2013Maran & Stockhammer, 2012;Ulf, 2014). ...
Recent archaeological finds and analyses have changed our understanding of the geographic horizons and margins of connectivity in the Bronze and Iron Age southern Levant. Evidence of trade in materials to and from far-away regions, way beyond what was believed to be within the “worldview” of the ancient Levant, has implications for understanding issues relating to economy, connectivity, cultural influences, bio-diversity, etc. This suggests that ancient Levantine and Mediterranean cultures had a significant role in “global scale” trade – more than often assumed. In addition, recent finds and analyses indicate that “exotic” organic materials – often not surviving in the archaeological record – played a central part in this trade; this, as opposed to common assumptions, which focused on highly visible (and better preserved) finds.KeywordsSouthern LevantTradeBronze AgeIron AgeOrganicsConnectivityEuroasiaSpheres of interactionGlobalization
... Numerous projects over the last half-century have applied science-based approaches to the study of metalwork to address archaeological questions of alloy selection, development, distribution, and provenance, the latter long considered the 'Holy Grail' of the discipline. (Radivojević et al., 2019: 165) Along with other science-based treatments of metals and the remains of metallurgical production, the 'holy grail' of provenance studies has long formed a key part of the archaeometallurgy of Cyprus, and lead isotope analysis (LIA)-whatever its potential or pitfalls-has enjoyed particular prominence (Mediterranean archaeometallurgy writ large, an initial attempt to consider some of the social aspects of the mining, technology and trade in metals (Kassianidou & Knapp, 2005). In that study, we discussed the production and use of specific metals throughout the Mediterranean, and attempted to assess some of the relevant metallurgical data with respect to mining and metallurgical landscapes, mining communities and the impact of metals and metallurgy on Mediterranean production, exchange and consumption. ...
As a major producer of copper throughout the Bronze Age (ca. 2400–1100 BC), the island of Cyprus assumed a key role in the social and economic networks within and beyond the eastern Mediterranean. Consequently, research into mining and metallurgy on the island during the Bronze Age was undertaken early and by the 1980s had become an integral part of the archaeology of Cyprus. While archaeometallurgical research on Cyprus has been and continues to be prolific and informative, its focus is by and large technological and ‘scientific’ in nature. When it comes to the Late Bronze Age (after ca. 1600 BC) especially, other issues also come to the fore—e.g., modes of production and exchange, historical and political links to other polities near and far. Less well considered are the social and material factors of Cypriot metallurgy, namely the prehistoric landscapes of mining and metallurgical production, the mining communities, hoarding practices, the social aspects of producing and exchanging copper, and the networks—terrestrial and maritime—that facilitated the entire system. This paper focuses on these social aspects of metallurgical production and exchange and considers the impact of metals and metallurgy on the Bronze Age inhabitants of Cyprus.KeywordsCyprusEastern MediterraneanBronze AgeSocial archaeologyArchaeometallurgyMiningCopper productionTrade/exchange networksMining communitiesMining landscapesHoards
... The penetration of sulfide technology to Cu deposits of Cyprus and Pb deposits in Greece marked the beginning of mass production [40]. Consequently, the Cu billets of Cyprus in the shape of ox hide are considered to be the trademark of this period (Fig. 2) [41]. ...
... Copper ox-hide ingot dating to the Late Bronze Age discovered at the Enkomi in Cyprus [41] Thanks to the development of smelting techniques, Fe replaced bronze as a principal material in tool and weapon production. The utilization of iron gave mankind grater control of its environment leading to the increased population and larger settlements. ...
Metallurgical production is considered as one of the drivers of the world economy. Metallurgy is a traditional, profitable
and export-oriented industry branch in the Republic of Croatia. Excellence can be based on investment in highly
sophisticated equipment as a potential for acquiring new and/or innovative knowledge, creativity and recognition on
the European research map. The investment potential is based on the infrastructure projects Center for Founding -
SIMET (KK.01.1.1.02.0020) of the Faculty of Metallurgy University of Zagreb in partnership with the Sisak-Moslavina
County and VIRTULAB – Integrated laboratory for primary and secondary raw materials (KK.01.1.1.02.0022) in which
the Faculty of Metallurgy is one of the partners. The projects were funded by the European Fund for Regional
Development in the framework of Operational Program Competitiveness and Cohesion (2014-2020). Investment in
equipment is not an end in itself! The created research potential forms the basis for investments in the knowledge, skills
and competences of employees and students, while opening opportunities for economically targeted activities. Today,
self-sustainability must be achieved by delivering excellent research results to stakeholders. Specific scientific research
and professional projects as well as targeted education and training for critical and innovative thinking based on
sophisticated equipment purchased through infrastructure projects will stimulate innovations in metallurgy. Raising the
level of research quality with the motto “From idea to final product” will promote the competitiveness, recognition and
general importance of ideas and innovations in metallurgy and metal industry as an important sector of the economic
development of the Republic of Croatia.
... Silver use in Anatolia and the Levant dates back to the sixth millennium BC; in other Mediterranean regions, it dates back to the transition from the fifth to fourth millennium BC (Kassianidou & Knapp, 2005). Sardinia is rich not only in copper but also in lead deposits, especially argentiferous lead (Figure 3), an excellent source of silver (Melis, 2014;Valera et al., 2005a). ...
... "Insularity does not mean isolation" (Usai & Lo Schiavo, 2009, p. 1), but rather reiterations and alterations in exchange with the outside world through the movement of objects, persons, knowledge, and images. The central role of the Mediterranean islands as places of connectivity and redistribution of resources, especially metal commodities, is well understood (Dawson 2016(Dawson , 2021Horden & Purcell 2000, p. 346;Kassianidou & Knapp, 2005;Knapp, 1990;2015, p. 26;van Dommelen & Knapp, 2010). However, the ways in which the indigenous pre-and protohistoric communities responded to changes in connectivity and networks are yet to be identified. ...
This study examines the role of the Nuragic metal trade in the Mediterranean setting, seeking to advance the debate on this subject. Published metal-related data are considered alongside current interpretations. Although Sardinia is geologically rich in metals, including copper and lead (silver), scholars have nonetheless disagreed about the role of these metals in shaping the political economy of Nuragic Sardinia and its interaction with the outside world (c. 1350–720 BC). Traditionally the island has been seen as passively relying on the agency of foreign merchants from the eastern Mediterranean region. Lately, however, a divergent view has credited Sardinia with a more active and autonomous role in the Mediterranean marketplace. This study provides an analytical review of the complexity of such opinions, alongside isotope-derived and other archaeometallurgical evidence. As a scaffold for future inquiries, key features based on theoretical and historical perspectives are pulled together to form an exploratory model of Sardinia’s changing geopolitical position in the interlinked world of the Mediterranean between the Bronze and Iron Ages. The time around 1200 BC is identified as a major historical threshold.
... This would support that the process of smelting and cupellation was potentially conducted at a much smaller scale than the later industrial processes associated with the extraction of silver from galena ores. Even accepting that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, the paucity of Bronze Age litharge (Gale & Stos-Gale, 1981b;Kassianidou & Knapp, 2005: 220) and slag (e.g., Kakavogianni et al., 2008;Papadopoulos, 2008) around the Aegean and further afield (Hess et al., 1998;Nezafati & Pernicka, 2012;Pernicka et al., 1998;Weeks, 2013) is inconsistent with the level of production required to make the exploitation of argentiferous lead ores viable. This is the case irrespective of whether the Bronze Age silver prospectors were aware of the levels of silver in these ores which, as already mentioned, are invisible to the naked eye. ...
Although the birth of Classical Greece is often attributed to the constitutional reforms of Cleisthenes (508/507 BCE), the achievement of an economically‐minded government under the Peisistratid tyrant Hippias (527‐510 BCE) potentially paved the way by advancing Athenian silver for exportation in international trade. It is proposed here that new silver technology, which initiated the transition from acquiring silver from ‘dry’ silver ores to silver‐bearing lead ores, was introduced to Greece during the time of the Peisistratids (561‐510 BCE). Massive exploitation of silver‐bearing lead ores at Laurion in Attica, which later financed the construction of a war navy, appears evident in the lead pollution records of Greenland ice, lead isotopic analyses of sixth century BCE Attic silver coins and late Iron Age Levantine hacksilver, and is reflected in the numbers of lead votive figurines at sanctuaries in Sparta. Against the backdrop of the threat of war with Persia and an imminent Spartan invasion which resulted in the overthrow of Hippias (510 BCE), it is considered that a political transition occurred because Greece was both geologically and politically disposed to adopt this labour‐intensive silver technology which helped to initiate, fund and protect the radical social experiment that became known as Classical Greece.
... Agricola describes it as "a kind of white liquid [that] flows from the furnace which is noxious to silver because it burns the metal" (Forbes 1950: 281). Other well-known processes such as cupellation (in order to separate silver from lead, for instance) would have led to residues, although evidence of this has only been identified in a couple of sites in the ancient Near East (Kassianidou and Knapp 2005: 226-7 mention only Habuba Kabira South in Syria [Pernicka et al. 1998] and Mahmaltar in Anatolia [Wertime 1973: 883]). By far the most important domain for complex procedures involved in the production of refined metal (and the corresponding precipitation of all manner of residues and slags) is the refining of sulfurous copper ore. ...
From prehistoric metal extraction to medieval alchemy to modern industry, chemistry has been central to our understanding and use of the physical world as well as to trade, warfare and medicine. In its turn, chemistry has been shaped by changing technologies, institutions and cultural beliefs. A Cultural History of Chemistry presents the first detailed and authoritative survey from antiquity to today, focusing on the West but integrating key developments in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Arabic-Islamic and Byzantine empires.
... The former explores the development of communities in prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus of which the production and trade of metals plays a crucial role. Kassianidou, Knapp 2005 also sheds light on this matter. The latter explores the history and impact of the mythological priest-king Kinyras who was synonymous with the island and copper. ...
This paper makes the case for developing ongoing research on Roman Cyprus’s metal profile by integrating object-centred approaches. It does so by focusing on the British Museum’s Cypriot collection as it contains a significant number of metal artefacts. The paper opens with a brief overview of key ancient evidence and the impact of recent, multidisciplinary approaches before introducing the collection and the data assembled for this case study. Assessment of this body of evidence highlights the benefits of undertaking systematic study of metalware related to Cyprus. A museological approach that focuses on the materiality of objects will also demonstrate how lines of enquiry can be developed to enhance current investigations of mining, metallurgy, and metal consumption across the island as well as shed further light on the role and cultural value of metals. This has huge implications for the study of Roman Cyprus and the wider Roman Mediterranean.
... This is in contrast to the claim by Russell and Knapp (2017) who asserted that… "the archaeological record does not substantiate the notion that Cypriote or any other eastern Mediterranean merchants or prospectors actively sought access to Sardinian ores", even though Stos- Gale and Gale (1994) and Stos- Gale and Gale (2010) have repeatedly shown that Sardinian lead was present on Cyprus. We now know, based on the accumulating evidence of lead objects on Cyprus, and CM-marked ingots in the Eastern Mediterranean made of Sardinian lead, that Cypriots actively sought Sardinian lead, both for distribution in Mediterranean markets and for their own use (see Kassianidou and Knapp, 2005;Recht, 2016 for a similar view), in light of the lead-poor nature of Cypriot copper (e.g., Gale, 2006;Kassianidou, 2006: 10). In addition to the use of lead for mundane purposes in Cyprus (e.g., net sinkers and weights), it also had a possible military use for sling bullets (Recht, 2016). ...
... A study of tin ingots from Mochlos, Crete and from Late Bronze Age shipwrecks found along the eastern Mediterranean coast, indicated that the source was located at Cornwall or Devon in England and, possibly, in the French Massif Central or Iberia (Berger et al., 2019). Sardinia could have played a key role in the acquisition of tin from such western sources to distribution throughout the eastern Mediterranean, thereby benefiting from the Atlantic trade (Kassianidou and Knapp, 2005;Pappa, 2019). In addition to lead, it is likely that Cypriot agents tapped into the tin that was available on the island (Sherratt, 2016b). ...
Four lead ingots were found as part of a shipwreck cargo in the southern anchorage of Caesarea in Israel. Analysis of the lead and a study of the markings incised on three of them are presented here for the first time. Four Cypro-Minoan signs are identified and paralleled with signs found on Late Cypriot artefacts. Lead isotope analysis indicates that the lead originated in Sardinia. Such an origin was indicated by earlier analyses of lead ingots from other cargoes along the Carmel coast, as well as by additional lead objects from Cyprus and other regions around the eastern Mediterranean. The Caesarea ingots, together with the latter, highlight the role of the Cypriots in the Mediterranean Late Bronze Age metal trade, and date their involvement to the 13th–early 12th century BCE. Rather than a specific connection between Cyprus and Sardinia at this time, as previously reconstructed, a broader commercial network and heightened involvement of the Cypriots in regional and supra-regional exchange in the eastern Mediterranean are suggested.
