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Map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: (a) distribution of desert in the Kingdom; (b) extent of Rub'al Khali desert (https://www.sgs.org.sa).
Source publication
A study was conducted to stabilize An Nafud desert sand against wind-induced erosion employing enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) assisted by a sodium alginate (SA) biopolymer. Biopolymers occur naturally in brown seaweed, are inexpensive, and are used extensively in the food, textile, and paper industries as thickeners and emulsifiers....
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... the attention of several researchers across the world. It is a prevailing occurrence seen mostly in arid and semi-arid regions of flat, bare areas with dry sandy soils that are loose and finely pulverized. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is comprised of an extensive territory where more than half of the land is made up of desert area, as shown in Fig. 1. A major source of the windblown particles is sandstorms, which occur at a frequency of about two to three episodes per month, usually between late February and mid-July. Wind erosion damage to land and natural vegetation involves the removal of soil from bare and disturbed areas within urban centers and cities and the deposit of it in ...
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... types of tests are seen to be essentially the same (the difference was no greater than 4.59%) (see Table 7). This reduction may be attributed to the exchange of ions between the sodium alginate and the calcium source present in the EICP solution. Thus, this exchange of ions resulted in the formation of a cross linked polymer chain, as shown in Fig. 10. This polymer chain encapsulates the carbonate precipitation and may have resulted in lower carbonate detection using the acid digestion method, as the polymer chain may have protected the carbonate precipitation from digestion by the acid while measuring the carbonate content. This may illustrate the decrease in the carbonate content ...
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... SA are slightly lower than those achieved in the case of the EICP (1:0.67) with SA. This may be attributed to the increase in the CaCl 2 concentration leading to the faster rate of the gelation of the alginate, and thus, may have suppressed the formation of carbonate due to the decrease in the available cations for the EICP hydrolysis reaction. Fig. 11 show that the calcite is located at the contact point (dash arrow) and the broken calcium carbonate at the inter particles (solid circle) for the different concentrations of calcium chloride. These findings agree with the previous study (Almajed et al., 2019), in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than ...
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... at the inter particles (solid circle) for the different concentrations of calcium chloride. These findings agree with the previous study (Almajed et al., 2019), in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than spread on the surface texture. The samples treated with a combination of SA (2.0%) and EICP, illustrated in Fig. 11(d), show the SA bonding the particles together and encapsulating the surface texture. This confirms the hypothesis presented by the schematic diagram in Fig. 11. The polymer chains encapsulate the sand particles and the precipitated carbonate, and this illustrates the increase in the crust strength in the case of the soil treated with SA ...
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... in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than spread on the surface texture. The samples treated with a combination of SA (2.0%) and EICP, illustrated in Fig. 11(d), show the SA bonding the particles together and encapsulating the surface texture. This confirms the hypothesis presented by the schematic diagram in Fig. 11. The polymer chains encapsulate the sand particles and the precipitated carbonate, and this illustrates the increase in the crust strength in the case of the soil treated with SA and EICP. This makes it hard to observe the type and location of calcium carbonate under SEM. This emphasizes the findings that increasing the percentage of ...
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... results obtained from the XRD analysis for: (a) pure sand (no treatment), (b) combination of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after ...
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... results obtained from the XRD analysis for: (a) pure sand (no treatment), (b) combination of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after washing the sample with water is considered as more proof that SA can encapsulate the organic cementation that occurred from the EICP solution, such as ammonium ...
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... of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after washing the sample with water is considered as more proof that SA can encapsulate the organic cementation that occurred from the EICP solution, such as ammonium ...
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... the attention of several researchers across the world. It is a prevailing occurrence seen mostly in arid and semi-arid regions of flat, bare areas with dry sandy soils that are loose and finely pulverized. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is comprised of an extensive territory where more than half of the land is made up of desert area, as shown in Fig. 1. A major source of the windblown particles is sandstorms, which occur at a frequency of about two to three episodes per month, usually between late February and mid-July. Wind erosion damage to land and natural vegetation involves the removal of soil from bare and disturbed areas within urban centers and cities and the deposit of it in ...
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... types of tests are seen to be essentially the same (the difference was no greater than 4.59%) (see Table 7). This reduction may be attributed to the exchange of ions between the sodium alginate and the calcium source present in the EICP solution. Thus, this exchange of ions resulted in the formation of a cross linked polymer chain, as shown in Fig. 10. This polymer chain encapsulates the carbonate precipitation and may have resulted in lower carbonate detection using the acid digestion method, as the polymer chain may have protected the carbonate precipitation from digestion by the acid while measuring the carbonate content. This may illustrate the decrease in the carbonate content ...
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... SA are slightly lower than those achieved in the case of the EICP (1:0.67) with SA. This may be attributed to the increase in the CaCl 2 concentration leading to the faster rate of the gelation of the alginate, and thus, may have suppressed the formation of carbonate due to the decrease in the available cations for the EICP hydrolysis reaction. Fig. 11 show that the calcite is located at the contact point (dash arrow) and the broken calcium carbonate at the inter particles (solid circle) for the different concentrations of calcium chloride. These findings agree with the previous study (Almajed et al., 2019), in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than ...
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... at the inter particles (solid circle) for the different concentrations of calcium chloride. These findings agree with the previous study (Almajed et al., 2019), in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than spread on the surface texture. The samples treated with a combination of SA (2.0%) and EICP, illustrated in Fig. 11(d), show the SA bonding the particles together and encapsulating the surface texture. This confirms the hypothesis presented by the schematic diagram in Fig. 11. The polymer chains encapsulate the sand particles and the precipitated carbonate, and this illustrates the increase in the crust strength in the case of the soil treated with SA ...
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... in which the calcite was mainly deposited at the contact point rather than spread on the surface texture. The samples treated with a combination of SA (2.0%) and EICP, illustrated in Fig. 11(d), show the SA bonding the particles together and encapsulating the surface texture. This confirms the hypothesis presented by the schematic diagram in Fig. 11. The polymer chains encapsulate the sand particles and the precipitated carbonate, and this illustrates the increase in the crust strength in the case of the soil treated with SA and EICP. This makes it hard to observe the type and location of calcium carbonate under SEM. This emphasizes the findings that increasing the percentage of ...
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... results obtained from the XRD analysis for: (a) pure sand (no treatment), (b) combination of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after ...
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... results obtained from the XRD analysis for: (a) pure sand (no treatment), (b) combination of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after washing the sample with water is considered as more proof that SA can encapsulate the organic cementation that occurred from the EICP solution, such as ammonium ...
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... of SA and EICP, and (c) sand treated with EICP, are illustrated in Fig. 12. The results confirmed that pure sand (without treatment) contained only quartz, whereas calcite was present in the soil treated with EICP (see Fig. 12(b) and (c)). In addition, for the samples treated with both SA and ECP, calcite formed, but with ammonium chloride (Fig. 12(c)). The ammonium chloride that was generated even after washing the sample with water is considered as more proof that SA can encapsulate the organic cementation that occurred from the EICP solution, such as ammonium ...
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Wind-driven sand erosion is the leading primary reason of earth deterioration in dry lands and a major global issue. Desert dust emissions and topsoil degradation caused by wind pose a global danger to the ecosystem, economy, and individual health. The aim of the current study is to critically analyze the different types of biopolymers and their in...
Citations
... To simulate the wind-blown sand erosion in the professional wind tunnels, these wind erosion devices should be able to continuously produce a stable airflow with sufficient velocity to entrain sand particles and simulate sand erosion (Yang et al. 2020). In addition, it is necessary to reduce the turbulence intensity in the airflow to reduce the influence of poor airflow quantity on the wind-sand erosion (Almajed et al. 2020;Mehta and Bradshaw 1979;Song et al. 2020). In this study, the wind-blown sand erosion equipment (Fig. 2) was the same as Liu et al. (2023b). ...
Background and aims
Revegetation is widely acknowledged as one of the most common and effective strategies for wind erosion control. However, efficient measures need to be taken to protect plant seedlings from wind erosion during the early growth. Enzyme induced carbonate precipitation using soybean urease (SICP) has emerged as an effective technique for wind erosion control. This study aims to investigate the effect of SICP on seed emergence and seedling growth of Caragana korshinskii Kom and its application in wind erosion control.
Methods
Twelve plexiglas test chambers were constructed to investigate the effects of four concentrations of SICP treatment (0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 mol/L) on the seed emergence and seedling growth behavior of Caragana korshinskii Kom and wind erosion resistance of vegetated desert sand.
Results
The seed emergence percentage of T-0.1, T-0.2 and T-0.3 decreased by 17.5%, 45%, and 71.25% compared to that of T-0 due to the increased soil hardness. T-0.1 with relatively low soil hardness and chloride content shows no significant difference in seedling growth properties from T-0. The seedling height, vegetation coverage, and root length density decreased with increasing concentration in T-0.2 and T-0.3. The soil mass loss of T-0.1 is 63.2%, 3% and 39% lower than that of T-0, T-0.2 and T-0.3.
Conclusion
SICP-treatment can provide substantial improvements in wind erosion resistance for desert sand during early plant growth. Cementation solution with 0.1 mol/L is recommended as it would not significantly inhibit the seedling growth and can provide sufficient benefits in soil erosion resistance.
... The biopolymers, xanthan gum, CMC, and FBC showed similar behavior and their performance did not vary significantly with dosage but corn starch and wheat protein exhibited marked improved performance at higher dosages for medium-grained sand while in the case of fine-grained sand all biopolymers showed a considerable decrease in dust generation at all investigated dosages. Almajed et al. (2020) used a combination of enzyme-induced calcium precipitation (EICP) and sodium alginate to improve the erosion resistance of An-Nafud desert sand and found that this combination improved the wind erosion resistance by 100% compared to that of desert sand even at lower concentration of the combined stabilizer. ...
Soil erosion is a major concern that needs to be addressed for the health of an ecosystem. It is a primary constraint to agriculture, affecting the yield, water quality at the source, and soil health. It is often a result of anthropogenic activities like deforestation, unhealthy irrigation and agricultural practices and overgrazing, etc., and leads to degradation of the environment. Soil erosion is a threat of significant magnitude that needs to be addressed in regions of large agricultural productivity like Asia underlining the need for mitigation measures. Structural interventions like check dams, silt traps, etc. are extensively used to deter soil erosion. However, these interventions are not integral to the natural environment and adversely affect the ecosystem. This study reviews the various biogeotechnological methods to control soil erosion and conserve the soil. Biological interventions like vegetative cover on slopes have long been practiced to control soil erosion in select zones. Biogenic additives to soil that improve the resistance of soil against soil erosion need detailed investigation. In line with this observation, this study will review biogenic stabilizers like vegetative cover, biopolymers, and biochar and their efficacy in controlling soil erosion. The effect of this biogenic stabilizer against soil erosion caused by wind and water will be discussed in detail. These methods do not only help in controlling soil erosion but also improve soil health and promote vegetative growth. These soil additives offer environment-friendly, carbon–neutral/carbon-negative, and sustainable alternatives to structural interventions that are used to control soil erosion. They will improve soil health which in turn will lead to increased agricultural productivity and alleviate hunger and will help in conserving soil and end desertification (SDG 2 and 15).
... Park [22] used the core plugging test to confirm that the EICP mineralization method caused calcite to precipitate in pores, resulting in a decrease in the permeability of a sandstone core. Gao Y [23] and Almajed [24] conducted field testing and discovered that EICP greatly increased the sandy soils' resistance to wind erosion and surface strength. Chen Y [25] found that the EICP technique could delay the occurrence of capillary barrier breach in sand geotextiles. ...
In recent years, soil solidification by EICP method is a green and environmentally friendly foundation treatment technology that has become popular in the field of geotechnical engineering. Compared with the traditional chemical induction method and the MICP method, the EICP method is not easily restricted by environmental factors associated with engineering geological problems and is green and environmentally friendly with lower cost. In this paper, a study was carried out to improve the seepage-mechanical properties of sandy soils by the EICP method. First, soybean urease solution extraction and its performance optimization methods were explored. Tests were conducted to compare urease extraction and detect activity. The activity of urease was 7.1% higher in deionized water than Laoshan mineral water. Second, the EICP grouting mineralization test was performed by using the carbon fiber reinforcement method. The CaCO3 content, unconfined compressive strength, porosity, permeability and other indicators of the sandy soil were systematically analyzed, and microscopic tests were conducted. The test results showed that after carbon fibers were added to the sand, the mineralization effect of EICP led to the precipitation of CaCO3 that adhered to the surfaces of sand grains and fibers and filled and cemented the pores between sand grains, which improved the integrity of the spatial structure and formed a stable solid sand-fiber monolithic composite structure. When the carbon fiber content was 1.2%, all aspects of performance were optimum. The above test results showed that the carbon fiber-based EICP mineralization method could effectively inhibit the brittle failure and improve the permeability and mechanical properties of sandy soil. This method has good application prospects and development potential for use in engineering geology.
... The amount of soil in motion and its path of transportation rely on factors such as particle size, soil aggregation, and wind velocity. The bounced particles then return with angular momentum, impacting the surface, crushing themselves, and ejecting neighboring particles into wind flow, leading to disaggregation of large particles and emission of finer ones for wind entrainment [3,4]. ...
... In the past twenty years, there has been significant research into biological methods as alternatives to traditional techniques for stabilizing soil surfaces. [4]. An example of such bio-derived methods is microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP), which triggers the formation of carbonate between soil particles through urease enzymecatalyzed hydrolysis. ...
... Additional hydrolysis processes, like enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP), utilize urease enzyme obtained from agricultural sources to induce the formation of carbonate among soil particles. [4,25,26]. The application of the EICP solution onto the soil surface leads to rapid production of calcium carbonate, facilitated by the presence of free urease enzyme. ...
... Water vapor sorption (WVS) is used to investigate the vapor retention of the treated specimens. The constructed vapor sorption curve using the WVS test provides information on surface properties and macroscale behavior of the treated specimens (Almajed et al. 2020b). In this study, treated and untreated sand specimens were used to construct hysteretic water vapor sorption isotherms at 25°C AE 0.2°C. ...
Biological soil improvement techniques, such as enzyme-induced calcium precipitation (EICP), have attracted increasing atten- tion as a sustainable and durable solution for ground improvement. However, recent life-cycle environmental assessment studies of EICP ground improvement have shown that enzyme stabilizers such as nonfat milk powder have a significant environmental impact. Hence, this study explores the potential of using sustainable biopolymer [sodium alginate (SA)] as a modifier in EICP cementing solution. The interaction effect between different EICP cementing solution constituents (calcium chloride, urease enzyme, urea, and SA) on the performance of sand- treated specimens is investigated. Response surface methodology (RSM), a design of experiments (DOE) approach, is utilized to design the testing program. In addition, RSM is adopted to model the effect of different constituents on the performance of EICP-treated soils. An optimal mix is suggested for the EICP-SA modified cementing solution with a maximum unconfined compressive strength of 1,762 kPa, compared with 460 kPa of the EICP-milk treated specimens. Moreover, the practical considerations of the SA-modified EICP solution are investigated through scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, and water retention. Notably, the study demonstrated that SA-modified EICP specimens have superior water retention characteristics compared with regular EICP-treated soils due to the inclusion of SA in the EICP solution. Additionally, a set of durability tests revealed the promising performance of the SA-modified EICP-treated specimens under wetting–drying cycles, with results complying with ASTM standards. These findings suggest that the SA-modified EICP approach offers a potent and environmentally friendly alternative for soil stabilization and improvement.
... All EICP solutions were prepared with 2.0 mol/L of urea, 1.34 mol/L CaCl2 (1 urea: 0.67 CaCl2), 9 g/L urease and 12 g/L non-fat milk. The amount of non-fat milk used was 4/3 of the urease enzyme, as suggested by Almajed et al. (2020). ...
Enzyme-induced calcium precipitation (EICP) is a promising technique for soil improvement. EICP utilizes enzymes to induce the precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) within soil pores, enhancing their mechanical properties. This study investigates the potential of using iron oxide (Fe2O3), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles to enhance the performance of EICP-treated sands in acidic and alkaline environments. The pH, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and calcium carbonate content of treated specimens were evaluated. Results showed that ZnO nanoparticles diminished the EICP effect, while Al2O3 nanoparticles improved UCS by 6.4% at a concentration of 0.20%. Fe2O3 nanoparticles retained 28.5% and 13.7% of UCS at concentrations of 0.10% and 0.40%, respectively. The addition of nanoparticles reduced the calcium carbonate content, with ZnO-EICP showing the highest reduction (~90%). This research highlights the need for further enhancement of the EICP technique in acidic and alkaline environments.
... Improving the wind erosion resistance of desert sand is critical to anti-desertification. Numerous studies utilizing MICP/EICP to mitigate wind erosion have been conducted over the last ten years (e.g., Gomez et al. 2015;Hamdan & Kavazanjian 2016;Gao et al. 2020;Miao et al. 2020aMiao et al. , 2020band Sun et al. 2021aand Sun et al. , 2021band Sun et al. , 2022c. Current achievements at laboratory-scale tests provide sufficient proof-to-concept to erosion control, while large-scale and field-scale trials set the basis for implementing this method towards real applications in anti-desertification. Attempts to optimize the treatment strategies to target specific environmental conditions revealed the potential for anti-desertification and pointed out the challenges that need to be addressed (Almajed et al. 2020;Sun et al. 2021aSun et al. , 2021b. Regardless of the experiment scale, the inspiration from these studies is that the improvement of MICP/EICP-treated soil to wind erosion is promising to prevent serious desertification in arid and semi-arid regions. ...
In recent years, the application of microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) and enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) techniques have been extensively studied to mitigate soil erosion, yielding substantial achievements in this regard. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the recent progress in erosion control by MICP and EICP techniques. To further discuss the effectiveness of erosion mitigation in-depth, the estimation methods and characterization of erosion resistance were initially compiled. Moreover, factors affecting the erosion resistance of MICP/EICP-treated soil were expounded, spanning from soil properties to treatment protocols and environmental conditions. The development of optimization and upscaling in erosion mitigation via MICP/EICP was also included in this review. In addition, this review discussed the limitations and correspondingly proposed prospective applications of erosion control via the MICP/EICP approach. The current review presents up-to-date information on the research activities for improving erosion resistance by MICP/EICP, aiming at providing insights for interdisciplinary researchers and guidance for promoting this method to further applications in erosion mitigation.
... For example, Bouazza et al. [18] reported that the hydraulic conductivity of SA-treated silty sand decreased from 1 × 10 − 6 m/s to 2 × 10 − 10 m/s after 70 days. SA can increase mechanical strength and resistance against wind-induced erosion [38,39] and enhance wetting-drying durability of sand [40]. Wen et al. [41] stabilised a sandy soil using SA biopolymer at concentrations ranging from 0.1% to 0.4% and impregnated the samples with a 0.5 M CaCl 2 solution to form Ca-alginate. ...
This study examines the impact of incorporating sodium alginate (SA) biopolymer into soft clay using the deep soil mixing method (DSM). SA-stabilised samples were tested under high-moisture (A) and low-moisture (B) conditions to assess their mechanical properties, chemical attributes, freeze-thaw resistance, and microstructure. Results indicate that samples cured under condition A outperformed those in condition B, primarily due to
enhanced biopolymer gel formation. In both conditions, increasing the SA content and curing time led to higher peak strength, stiffness, and pH. The higher SA ratio improved ductility in condition A but increased brittleness in condition B. At the 28-day mark, a 1.0% SA ratio and a pH range of 8.2–8.4 were crucial for specimen strength increase. Freeze-thaw cycles had minimal impact, with a modest reduction in compressive strength observed. Scanning electron microscopy showed face-to-face bonding between clay particles and the gel-like materials due
to electrostatic attraction. After 14 days, ramifications occurred around the core structure, and after 28 days, high agglomeration structures appeared, attributed to clay particle flocculation. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis indicated an increase in the Si/Al ratio boosted sample strength, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) results showed no crystalline phase in SA-stabilised samples due to encapsulating clay minerals with gel-like materials. In summary, this study suggests that SA biopolymer offers an eco-friendly, sustainable option for enhancing soft
clay with DSM.
... Soil improvement using biocement based on enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) process is an emerging ground treatment method in geotechnical engineering. This method utilizes the free urease enzyme to induce the calcium carbonate precipitation to bond the loose soil particles together and thus enhance the soil strength [35,43,52] and fill the interparticle pores to reduce the soil permeability [3,29,33,47]. A large number of researches on EICP treatment have been reported to date. ...
There are two major challenges for the use of enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP)-based soil improvement method: cost and treatment effect. Optimizing the parameters of the treatment solution is one way to enhance the treatment effect and/or reduce the treatment cost. In this study, three key factors: the initial pH (i.e. pH0) of the enzyme solution used to prepare the treatment solution (i.e. the mixture of enzyme solution, CaCl2 and urea), the urease activity of the treatment solution and the concentration of cementation solution (i.e. CaCl2 and urea) are investigated. Crude soybean enzyme solution and the one-phase-low-pH injection method are adopted for the treatment of sand. The results show that the pH0 of the enzyme solution affects the urease activity of enzyme and thus the urease activity of the prepared treatment solution. It is discovered in this paper that there is a threshold pH value for the treatment solution. Only when the pH of the treatment solution is higher than the threshold pH value, calcium ions convert completely into calcium carbonate. There is also a threshold urease activity which is affected by the concentration of cementation solution, CCS. The optimal CCS is 1.0 M. When the CCS is higher than 1.75 M, the urease activity of soybean enzyme solution would be completely lost. These findings are important in guiding the application of EICP treatment using the crude soybean enzyme in real soil improvement projects.
... Almost 5% of global CO2 emissions are contributed to the cement industry [7,8], leading to global warming and severe biodiversity damage [9,10]. In this way, biological techniques have recently been developed to minimize the environmental impacts, e.g., microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP) [11][12][13][14][15], enzyme-induced calcite precipitation (EICP) [16][17][18], biogas generation, and biopolymers [15,[19][20][21][22][23][24]. Calcite-induced precipitation methods precipitate calcite through the hydrolysis of urea. ...
