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Map of Timor-Leste showing the major districts (Source: UN 2011)
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The agriculture industry is significantly exposed to the impacts of climate change, and is also responsible for contributing extensive greenhouse gas emissions. As a way of responding to both adaptation and mitigation challenges within the industry, this article examines how community-based climate change adaptation initiatives might provide mitiga...
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For those who work on Timor-Leste issues, they perhaps already familiar with Lulik3, literally meaning sacred, holy or forbidden—e.g., in phrases such as Uma Lulik (sacred house), Rai Lulik (sacred land), Bee Lulik (sacred water), Foho Lulik (sacred mountain), Nai or Amo Lulik (sacred priest for Catholics). When Timorese hear the term ‗Lulik‘, it i...
Eviota santanai is described based on four specimens from Timor-Leste, taken in 5–8 m depth. In general coloration pattern, the species is most similar to E. latifasciata , but differs in the cephalic sensory-pore system pattern, the absence of an occipital spot, and live color including pinkish-mauve bars. Eviota santanai has a dorsal/anal fin-ray...
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... In other instances, publications did include empirical evidence, but only for either adaptation or mitigation outcomes-not for both, as discussed in section 4.1. For example [8,55,56] provide excellent evidence for adaptation outcomes for various suits of tillage practices, agroforestry, and crop diversification, but for mitigation, no empirical evidence was provided. While it may be enough to rely on literature citations for carbon sequestration occurring with the implementation of some practices (such as planting trees in cropland), this measurement gap remains problematic. ...
Agricultural practices that both support climate change mitigation and facilitate adaptation to a changing climate are critical for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while ensuring food security. This need has led to many claims regarding the potential for a variety of agricultural practices to achieve synergies between mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. However, the evidence for mitigation and adaptation synergies in agriculture remains mixed. To evaluate such claims, we examined the evidence for mitigation and adaptation synergies, by conducting a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature that make claims about outcomes for both climate change adaptation and mitigation in agriculture. Based on 87 articles identified, we show that synergistic outcomes are claimed more frequently than tradeoffs for all practices, yet the evidence was stronger for mixed and conflicting outcomes than for synergies. Indeed, claims of synergistic outcomes may be overstated, because these publications more often relied on secondary data rather than empirically evaluating adaptation and mitigation outcomes. We also show important gaps in the consideration and assessment of climate change adaptation and mitigation objectives and outcomes. This review highlights the critical need for more robust research, evidence, and evaluation of the adaptation and mitigation outcomes of agricultural practices, and the need to clarify the contexts of such results, in order to effectively support policies and practices that aim to promote synergistic outcomes and avoid conflicting outcomes.
... These factors restrict agricultural productivity and other livelihood options for households. As a result, 42% of the population lived under a 2.15$/day poverty line in 2014, especially in rural areas (Chandra et al. 2016). ...
... Adaptive practices like this for subsistence farming will soon be widely in demand due to anthropogenic climate change [27]. Such practices tend to diffuse predominantly through person-to-person or household-to-household learning [28,29]. Mangrove ecosystem management is another strategy known by South Pacific Islanders for mitigating sea-level rise that could royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb Phil. ...
Successful climate change adaptation depends on the spread and maintenance of adaptive behaviours. Current theory suggests that the heterogeneity of metapopulation structure can help adaptations diffuse throughout a population. In this paper, we develop an agent-based model of the spread of adaptations in populations with minority–majority metapopulation structure, where subpopulations learn more or less frequently from their own group compared to the other group. In our simulations, minority–majority-structured populations with moderate degrees of in-group preference better spread and maintained an adaptation compared to populations with more equal-sized groups and weak homophily. Minority groups act as incubators for an adaptation, while majority groups act as reservoirs for an adaptation once it has spread widely. This means that adaptations diffuse throughout populations better when minority groups start out knowing an adaptation, as Indigenous populations often do, while cohesion among majority groups further promotes adaptation diffusion. Our work advances the goal of this theme issue by developing new theoretical insights and demonstrating the utility of cultural evolutionary theory and methods as important tools in the nascent science of culture that climate change adaptation needs.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Climate change adaptation needs a science of culture’.
... Some crops never leave the field or are unharvested simply because farmers understand the economic reality, for example, because the selling price is too low or the transport cost is too high that the revenue cannot compensate [30,47]. It is also important to acknowledge that years of education in a formal institution might not be a perfect variable to explain traditional producers' knowledge and skills in farming since most of them can be acquired through informal training and intergenerational experience in the community [5,10,33,54]. A study by IFPRI for FAO in Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru also shows ambiguous impacts of education on food loss [19]. ...
A considerable amount of food produced is lost globally. Food loss indicates not only the amount of edible food that humans do not consume but also the waste of resources used in production and distribution, linked with multifold problems such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and economic loss. While there has been a growing body of literature about magnitudes and technical solutions to reduce food loss, little is known about how different socioeconomic factors are potentially related to the losses. Here we assess the relationships between various relevant socioeconomic factors and food loss within the early stages of the food supply chain (i.e., farm, harvest, storage, and transport parts of it) using the most comprehensive data available. We found that factors such as high gross national income (GNI) per capita and high employment in agriculture are significantly associated with low food loss. It suggests that income might be invested in technology or infrastructure while labor is still vital to reduce food loss, especially in technology-inferior countries. Other important factors related to low food loss are access to electricity in rural areas and export volume index, although the significance and directions vary in each commodity and food supply stage. Our results provide valuable insights into socioeconomic factors around food loss that are beneficial to formulating relevant policy, especially in countries where substantial food losses in the early stages of the food supply chain considerably risk to food security.
... Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the primary root and tuber crops widely planted in ENT. For marginal environments, poor soils, and drought-prone regions, cassava is the primary carbohydrate source for small farmers [2][3][4][5] and supplies most of the starch used by industries [6]. ...
Risk and uncertainty in grain crop production are common in marginal semi-arid environments , such as East Nusa Tenggara province. Growing root and tuber crops in a mixed-cropping system is one of the strategies developed by smallholder farmers to substitute food grains and minimize risk. Nevertheless, root and tuber crops are not prioritized for food production systems since food crops in Indonesia are based more on grain and wetland rice production systems. This paper reviews cassava crops, which are widely cultivated by smallholder farmers. This paper contributes to understanding the roles of cassava for smallholder farmers, the diversity of the cassava germ plasm, the progress made to increase cassava productivity, and the potency of cassava crops to improve farmers' incomes. This paper highlights that, in the low and erratic rainfall of dominant semi-arid regions, the development of cassava is pivotal to secure the harvest of food crops or food availability and income generation for marginal farmers.
... Prior to the arrival of the European ruler in Timor, the indigenous Timorese survived as hunters and gatherers on the less populated island and in the diverse environment [115,116]. Timorese people probably started farming in the 13th century [117], and incorporated some new food crops, which were later replaced by maize after contact with Indian and Chinese traders, and later with European traders [115,118,119]. In this section, a pearl of local wisdom refers to indigenous Timorese practices in upland farming that respect environmental and sustainability notions. ...
... An ancient food crop commodity in Timor was foxtail [117], followed by the introduction of a new food crop, Maize, which later became the main staple. The slash-and-burn system is a common practice in land preparation for a traditional system. ...
This paper’s working hypothesis is that the indigenous farming practices of Timorese farmers are those most suitable and adaptable with regard to these farmers’ circumstances. Intensive farming and the acceleration of land conversion in Java lead to a reduction in favorable cropland and the degradation of soil biology. To meet the demand for food production, unfavorable areas outside Java, including marginal semi-arid areas on Timor Island, East Nusa Tenggara province, have become an important option. Unfortunately, the national crop production policy has paid less attention to the specific biophysical characteristics of the region and how local people have adapted to the diverse marginal environment. We review the literature in the areas of soil nutrition retention and soil biology, vegetation/crop diversity, and farming practices/management, including local wisdom on soil management. This paper highlights that the values of the chemical parameters of the soils in question are varied, but generally range from low to high. The existence of beneficial micro-organisms is important both for improving soil fertility and due to their association with local vegetation/crops. Traditional farming practices, such as the local agroforestry of Mamar, have effectively preserved the existence of micro-organisms that promote conservation practices, crop/vegetation diversity, and sustainable agriculture. We recommend that the expansion of croplands and crop production into marginal semi-arid areas needs to be considered and adapted while taking into consideration sustainability and environmentally sound traditional practices.
... Agroforestry could also contribute to DRR and build community resiliency in Timor-Leste [61,62]. Timor-Leste is highly vulnerable to climate change and disaster risks due to its hilly geographical terrain [5]. ...
... The fifth assessment report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has suggested an integrated strategy such as agroforestry to address climate change [63]. Agroforestry, the diversification of crops, and the use of A-frame terracing come under the most potential cost-effective climate change mitigation options in Timor-Leste [61]. The adoption of an agroforestry development strategy could facilitate the growth of agroforestry in Timor-Leste [52]. ...
... Following the requirement of resilience against natural calamities and the limited amount of arable land, agroforestry could be the best strategy to diversify the land use and prevent land degradation in Timor-Leste. An approach to develop agroforestry at a wider scale in Timor-Leste through technical support to maximize food production, financial investments, infrastructure development, policy intrusions, and land ownership rights is required [54,57,61]. ...
Agro forestry is a land management system that integrates trees, agriculture crops, and animal farming in order to provide a diverse range of ecosystem services. Timor-Leste, the newest country and one of the least developed counties, has faced multidimensional challenges on land use management, including deforestation, land degradation, and poverty. The agroforestry system is recognized as one of the viable options for balancing the socio-economic needs and ecological functions of the lands in Timor-Leste. The system has been practiced traditionally by farmers in the country; however, the lack of knowledge and experience, limited institutional capacity, and lack of funding have impeded the wider implantation of the agroforestry system in Timor-Leste. The Strategic Development Plan of Timor-Leste has recommended sustainable agriculture and natural resources management in the rural areas of the country to generate income and create employment for the youths. The paper presents the initiatives, challenges, and opportunities of agroforestry application in Timor-Leste to support sustainable forest management and livelihood improvement. Learning from existing initiatives, capacity building, market access, and financial incentives could promote the agroforestry system in the country.
... The promotion of organic cultivation can be one of the strategies to facilitate sustainable and climate-resilient agriculture (Chandra et al., 2016;Streimikis & Balezentis, 2020). Organic cultivation can contribute directly or indirectly to reduce CO2 emissions and mitigate the negative consequence of climate change due to eco-friendly soil management practices. ...
The small tea growers (STGs), a considerable part of the tea industry, contribute significantly to the rural economy in tea-producing countries. As tea cultivation has become a high-input high-output system, it raises concerns for the sustainability of the STGs, and thus to sustainable tea production and overall agricultural sustainability. There is a need to encourage the STGs to uptake environment-friendly cultivation to fight against challenges including livelihood, health hazards, and the consequences of climate change. This study draws lessons from the adoption of organic cultivation by some of the STGs in Assam, India. It uses mixed methods research. The qualitative analyses found that compared to conventional production, organic production provided avenues to greater learning, greater awareness on environmental management, fostered new networks, and promoted entrepreneurship based on small-scale tea processing. The quantitative analyses identified the important factors that influenced the growers' adoption decision. Large-scale adoption of organic cultivation by the STGs relies on how the policy interventions leverage the decisive factors such as training and learning, income perception, establishment of STGs owned factories, and others. The findings have significant implications for policy-making and practice to promote sustainability concerning the smallholders in the developing countries who rely on cultivation of cash crops.
... Dead leaves also serve as organic matter to increase soil fertility (Thapa et al., 2008). Diverting streams to prevent flood contributes to climate change adaptation (Table 3) because it helps to reduce the risk of soil losses and crop damages in heavy storms; slows water runoff; reinforces the sense of communality through social collaboration and reciprocity; and increases feedstuff availability using grazing plants in bio fencing (Amare et al., 2014;Berendse et al., 2015;Chandra et al., 2016;Hurni et al., 2008). ...
Land supplies multiple goods and services vital to humans and the environment. In the last decades, increasing evidence of growing land degradation are made apparent. A limited and depleting resource base, the reliance on climate-sensitive sectors and its large population, make South Asia highly vulnerable to climate change. Observed changes in climate include increases in temperature and increased monsoon variability and rainfall pattern leading to drought and flooding. Projected changes include increasing temperatures, rising sea levels, increasing cyclonic activity and higher variability of rainfall, all having enormous impacts on farming communities. At the same time, the region is rich in traditional agricultural knowledge (TAK), specialized in managing local agroecosystems to ensure food availability, tackling climatic risks and other ecological uncertainties. Particularly relevant is TAK related to land management to preserve soil fertility and avoid soil erosion. Ethnographic research is a valuable source of TAK, although this is rarely analysed with a climate change perspective. Based on a qualitative systematic review, and an expert's on-line survey, in this paper we review land management TAK and assess its potential for climate change adaptation. The review shows there is a vast amount of untapped TAK ethnographic research with potential for climate change adaptation.
... There is an urgent need for agricultural policymakers, advisors, and technicians to be aware of and further informed of the agronomic, economic, and environmental benefits of sustainable agricultural practices, and all of these need more robust results from scientific research to prove their effectiveness. Currently, the adaptation measures focus on land and water management, and the agricultural system itself, but their corresponding greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential is weakened or ignored, including co-benefits such as soil/atmospheric carbon sequestration, soil nitrification and the reduced use of chemicals fertilizers [68]. In fact, the GHG emissions from agriculture are prominent. ...
Agricultural production is a crucial and fundamental aspect of a stable society in China that depends heavily on the climate situation. With the desire to achieve future sustainable development, China's government is taking actions to adapt to climate change and to ensure food self-sufficiency. This paper assesses the scientific literature from both domestic and international journals, and the review policies released by the Chinese government, in order to investigate the adaptive actions being taken in China at the scale of the central government, and at the local administration and individual farmer level. The results demonstrate that China's government has undertaken a multitude of adaptation programs in order to cope with vulnerability in the agricultural sector, and these include the release of stimulus policies, the support of new technological research, and investments in field facilities to strengthen the building of adaptive capacity. At the farmer household level, we found that people are spontaneously adapting to climate change on their own accord by changing the timing of cultivations, and through the selection of other crop species and cultivars. People are also securing non-land-related jobs when confronted with climate disasters. A summary is presented of the various agricultural adaptation policies and technologies. Although China has made great progress in terms of adapting to climate change, there is still more work that needs to be done. This work entails not just agricultural policy stimulation but also non-structural components, such as raising public awareness and providing adaptive skill training, etc. It can be concluded that agriculture sector could seek advantages and avoid disadvantages from adaptation activities by multiple stakeholders from different perspectives, and reduce the adverse effects of climate change. Climate adaptation strategies and actions are important and indispensable components for agricultural development in China, and more advanced technologies and ideologies are needed for a secure future.
