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Regulatory frameworks to ensure municipal drinking water safety exist in most North American jurisdictions. However, similar protection is rarely provided to people reliant on water provided from private wells. In Canada, approximately 4 million people depend on privately owned, domestic wells for their drinking water. Numerous studies have shown t...
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Context 1
... Ontario (Fig. 1) was selected as the study location because of the large number of people dependent on private wells (z3 million), and because a significant regulatory gap exists regarding the protection of private well water quality (McClenaghan, 2005;PollutionWatch, 2009). Currently, the prin- cipal mechanism for regulating the construction and ...
Context 2
... questionnaire was mailed to a random sample of 4950 well owners from ten municipalities across southern Ontario. Munici- palities were selected using a random, geographically-stratified approach (Fig. 1). Ten counties and regional municipalities were first randomly selected across the four regions into which the Ontario Ministry of the Environment has divided the province e in proportion to the number of rural dwellings, estimated from 2006 Census of Canada data. One municipality was then randomly selected in each of the ten ...
Citations
... Despite recommendations to test their well water on a regular basis for contaminants (EPA & WHO 2002; US EPA 2019), private well-owners rarely do so. They tend to test their water on an ad-hoc basis, that is, as a one-off or if issues arise (Flanagan, Marvinney, and Zheng 2015;Hooks, Schuitema, and McDermott 2019;Hynds, Misstear, and Gill 2013;Imgrund, Kreutzwiser, and de Loë 2011;Kreutzwiser et al. 2011). ...
... One noticeable feature among well-owners is that relatively few well-owners test their water (Flanagan, Marvinney, and Zheng 2015;Hynds, Misstear, and Gill 2013;Imgrund, Kreutzwiser, and de Loë 2011;Kreutzwiser et al. 2011), which indicates that there is weak social norm around water testing (Hooks, Schuitema, and McDermott 2019). Social norms are defined as 'rules that are understood by members of a group, and that guide/constrain human behaviour' (Cialdini and Trost 1998, 152). ...
... More importantly, the community science testing samples contained more than 5 µg l −1 in 36% of wells. Such differences in lead concentrations reported may have altered well stewardship behaviors, from no action to avoidance of the drinking water [10,36,37]. Providing educational materials is critical, as studies document that educational materials can increase well water stewardship behaviors that reduce exposures to contaminants [38,39]. ...
Private wells often lack centralized oversight, drinking water quality standards, and consistent testing methodologies. For lead in well water, the lack of standardized data collection methods can impact reported measurements, which can misinform health risks. Here, we conducted a targeted community science testing of 1,143 wells across 17 counties in North Carolina (USA) and compared results to state testing data primarily associated with new well construction compiled in the NCWELL database. The goal of our study was to explore the impacts of sampling methodology and household representation on estimated lead exposures and subsequent health risks. At the household scale, we illustrated how sampling and analytical techniques impact lead measurements. The community science testing first draw samples (characterizing drinking water) had a 90th percentile lead value of 12.8 µg/L while the NCWELL database flushed samples (characterizing groundwater) had a value below the reporting level of 5 µg/L. As lead was associated with the corrosion of premise plumbing, flushing prior to collection substantially reduced lead concentrations. At the community scale, we examined how the lack of representation based on household demographics and well construction characteristics impacted the knowledge of lead and blood lead level (BLL) occurrence. When simulating representative demographics of the well populations, we observed that the 90th percentile lead level could differ by up to 6 µg/L, resulting in communities being above the USEPA action level. This translated to a 1.0-1.3 µg/dL difference in predicted geometric mean BLL among infants consuming reconstituted formula. Further, inclusion of less common well construction types also increased lead in water occurrence. Overall, under- and overestimations of lead concentrations associated with differences in sampling techniques and sample representation can misinform conclusions about risks of elevated BLLs associated with drinking water from private wells which may hinder investigations of waterborne lead exposure.
... Studies to encourage testing of private wells found that targeted household-specific information and information about nearby well contamination increased testing, but well testing rates were low in the baseline and often remained low after these interventions (Renaud et al. 2011;Mac-Donald and Tippett 2020). Other interventions (e.g., distributing free test kits and offering next-day pickup) had no effect on participation (Kreutzwiser et al. 2011;Hexemer et al. 2008). Surveys have showed that even when well contamination was found, relatively few residents treated their water (Severtson et al. 2006). ...
Many public water systems are struggling to locate and replace lead pipes that distribute drinking water across the United States. This study investigates factors associated with customer participation in a voluntary lead service line (LSL) inspection and replacement program. It also uses quasi-experimental and experimental methods to evaluate the causal impacts of two grant programs that subsidized homeowner replacement costs on LSL program participation. LSLs were more prevalent in areas with a higher concentration of older housing stock, Black and Hispanic residents, renters, and lower property values. Owner-occupied and higher valued properties were more likely to participate in the LSL program. Results from the two grant program evaluations suggest that subsidies for low-income homeowners to cover LSL replacement costs can significantly boost participation, but only when the programs are well publicized and easy to access. Even then, there was still significant non-participation among properties with confirmed LSLs.
... However, proper well stewardship by private well users is a significant challenge for public health, especially given that there are no federal laws or requirements for managing private wells and state-level guidance remains limited [16][17][18]. Barriers exist which inhibit private well users from seeking and/or implementing proper well stewardship, and can include factors such as a lack of the resources needed to test or treat well water, a lack of knowledge regarding what well water testing and treatment entails, complacency, cost, the inconvenience of testing, and privacy concerns [16,19,20]. For example, well water testing by private well users remains extremely limited [17,21], with a previous study identifying only a 10% annual testing rate among well users in Wisconsin [17,21] or the fact that testing only occurs when concerns for water quality arise [22,23]. ...
... Location (Wharton County vs. other counties) was also identified as being significantly associated with well users who had had water treatment devices added (p = 0.077). The lack of association between the demographic characteristics could be due to the small sample size and/or survey design or because, as in some cases, the demographic factors were found to be unrelated to water testing practices [20]. The location of residence has also been found to influence health risks and well water management, as has been suggested in this study [42,43]. ...
... A well user's perception of their water's safety or quality can affect decisions regarding whether to test or treat well water. For example, a low perceived risk will often result in well owners not testing or treating their water [20]. The feeling that the well water was safe to drink was associated with well water testing (p = 0.096). ...
Private wells are susceptible to contamination from flooding and are exempt from the federal requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Consequently, well users must manage (e.g., disinfect) and maintain (e.g., regularly test) their own wells to ensure safe drinking water. However, well user practices and perceptions of well water quality in the years following a natural disaster are poorly characterized. An online follow-up survey was administered in October 2020 to private well users who had previously experienced Hurricane Harvey in 2017. The survey was successfully sent to 436 participants, and 69 surveys were returned (15.8% return rate). The survey results indicate that well users who had previously experienced wellhead submersion or a positive bacteria test were more likely to implement well stewardship practices (testing and disinfection) and to report the feeling that their well water was safe. While the majority of well users believed that their water was safe (77.6%), there was a significant decrease in well water being used for drinking, cooking, and for their pets after Hurricane Harvey. Generally, these well users tend to maintain their wells at higher rates than those reported in other communities, but there continues to be a critical need to provide outreach regarding well maintenance practices, especially before natural disaster events occur.
... According to these authors, most owners of private abstractions do not conduct water analysis even though their concerns with the environmental pollution problems do exist. Moreover, the results obtained in this research are in accordance with the ones obtained by Maleckia et al. [48], Fox et al. [26] and Kreutzwiser et al. [43]. These authors emphasize that the interpretation of water analysis reports is very hard for the majority of citizens. ...
Nowadays, an increasing amount of water is used without the awareness that this resource is not inexhaustible. In fact, pollution, environmental degradation and/or climate change caused by human activities lead to the degradation of the quality of available water. In 2015, the United Nations warned about the risk of reaching a water deficit of 40%, in 2030, if consumption patterns are not changed. Indeed, population growth is one of the main causes for this deficit. The protection and sustainable consumption of water is one of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, to ensure that the world’s population has access to clean water, free from pollution and managed responsibly. Thus, governments and non-governmental organizations must promote the conscious and informed use of water by the population. It is mandatory that the population becomes aware of the need for efficient management of water resources, ensuring their quality and preventing their degradation, in order to not compromise/jeopardize their future availability. The knowledge of the population’s literacy on water issues and on water quality—health interconnections is essential to design plans leading to the implementation of eco-sustainable practices. The goal of this research was to evaluate the literacy of water consumers and to establish a forecast model for water literacy managing. The collection of information was conducted through the inquiry by questionnaire technique and applied on a cohort encompassing 453 participants. The questionnaire includes three main dimensions (Water Quality, Disease Prevention and Sustainability/Public Health Promotion) and in each dimension, four competencies were evaluated (obtain, understand, assess and apply information regarding water consumption). The results obtained allow to assert that in the two first dimensions, the competence in which participants show more difficulty is assess. Regarding the Sustainability/Public Health Promotion, the participants show more difficulty in the competence apply. The model presented in this research, grounded on the connectionist paradigm, has shown great efficiency in the forecast of the target variable. The key contribution of the present research is to present an integrated and systematic approach that can give a contribution to the increase of water literacy, which allows the implementation of eco-sustainable practices.KeywordsArtificial intelligenceArtificial neural networksSustainable use of waterWater literacy assessmentWater managementWater quality
... However, lack of protective actions has been identified among private well users in Canada and elsewhere. For example, while bacteriological testing is available free of charge to private well users in Ontario, testing rates are considered low relative to the number of wells in the province (Kreutzwiser et al., 2011;Roche et al., 2013;Maier et al., 2014). Limited engagement in protective actions, coupled with a poor understanding of the heath burden attributable to private well water, make it difficult to assess overall well water quality and subsequently develop evidence-based public health interventions for private drinking water systems (Colley et al., 2019). ...
... Thus, all individuals who rely on private well water were considered at-risk regardless of the presence of well water treatment. Private well owners may not provide the required maintenance of their treatment systems and/or some well owners incorrectly believe their system is effective against microbial contamination (e.g., water softener, iron removal) (Kreutzwiser et al., 2011;Malecki et al., 2017;Lavallee et al., 2021b). Therefore, the total at-risk population was estimated to be 1,573,775 (Statistics Canada, 2019). ...
Private well users in Ontario are responsible for ensuring the potability of their own private drinking water source through protective actions (i.e., water treatment, well maintenance, and regular water quality testing). In the absence of regulation and limited surveillance, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) represents the most practical and robust approach to estimating the human health burden attributable to private wells. For an increasingly accurate estimation, QMRA of private well water should be represented by a coupled model, which includes both the socio-cognitive and physical aspects of private well water contamination and microbial exposure. The objective of the current study was to determine levels of waterborne exposure via well water consumption among three subgroups (i.e., clusters) of private well users in Ontario and quantify the risk of waterborne acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) attributed to Giardia, shiga-toxin producing E. coli (STEC) and norovirus from private drinking water sources in Ontario. Baseline simulations were utilized to explore the effect of varying socio-cognitive scenarios on model inputs (i.e., increased awareness, protective actions, aging population). The current study uses a large spatio-temporal groundwater quality dataset and cross-sectional province wide survey to create socio-cognitive-specific QMRA simulations to estimate the risk of waterborne AGI attributed to three enteric pathogens in private drinking waters source in Ontario. Findings suggest significant differences in the level of exposure among subgroups of private well users. Private well users within Cluster 3 are characterised by higher levels of exposure and annual illness attributable to STEC, Giardia and norovirus than Clusters 1 and 2. Provincial incidence rates of 520.9 (1522 illness per year), 532.1 (2211 illness per year) and 605.5 (5345 illness per year) cases/100,000 private well users per year were predicted for private well users associated with Clusters 1 through 3. Established models will enable development of necessary tools tailored to specific groups of at-risk well users, allowing for preventative public health management of private groundwater sources.
... Private water wells are subject to contamination by enteric pathogens consequent to factors including improper land application/disposal of manure, septic system leakage, and contaminated run-off (overland flow) resulting from extreme weather events (e.g., flooding, high-intensity rainfall, snowmelt) (Murphy et al., 2017). Further, private water wells are not required to meet the regulatory standards of the Ontario Safe Drinking Water Act (2002) or the Ontario Clean Water Act (2006), and thus source maintenance, testing and other measures to ensure potability remain the responsibility of the well owner (Kreutzwiser et al., 2011). Navigating guidelines and recommendations can prove challenging for property owners, as can the cost of efficacious treatment systems, making access to clean water a critical health equity issue in Ontario. ...
... Despite the recognized risk associated with untreated well water, many private well users do not employ a treatment system effective against microbial contaminants, or improperly maintain the systems, rendering them ineffective. (Kreutzwiser et al., 2011;Flanagan et al., 2015;Malecki et al., 2017;Seliga et al., 2022). It is important to note that utilizing a water treatment system is entirely voluntary and can be costly to the well owner, however, a doubling of illness due to failing treatment systems would lead to a significant increase in direct and indirect costs across healthcare systems and households. ...
The province of Ontario compromises the largest groundwater reliant population in Canada serving approximately 1.6 million individuals. Unlike municipal water systems, private well water is not required to meet water quality regulatory standards and thus source maintenance, treatment and testing remains the responsibility of the well owner. Infections associated with private drinking water systems are rarely documented given their typically sporadic nature, thus the human health effects (e.g., acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI)) on consumers remains relatively unknown, representing a significant gap in water safety management. The current study sought to quantify the risk of waterborne AGI attributed to Giardia, shiga-toxin producing E. coli (STEC) and norovirus from private drinking water sources in Ontario using Monte Carlo simulation-based quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Findings suggest that consumption of contaminated private well water in Ontario is responsible for approximately 4823 AGI cases annually, with 3464 (71.8%) and 1359 (28.1%) AGI cases predicted to occur in consolidated and unconsolidated aquifers, respectively. By pathogen, waterborne AGI was attributed to norovirus (62%; 2991/4823), Giardia (24.6%; 1186/4823) and STEC (13.4%; 646/4823). The developed QMRA framework was used to assess the potential health impacts of partial and total well water treatment system failure. In the unlikely event of total treatment failure, total mean annual illnesses are predicted to almost double (4217 to 7064 cases per year), highlighting the importance of effective water treatment and comprehensive testing programs in reducing infectious health risks attributable to private well water in Ontario. Study findings indicate significant underreporting of waterborne AGI rates at the provincial level likely biasing public health interventions and programs that are effective in monitoring and minimizing the health risk associated with private well water.
... A frequently cited barrier influencing water quality test submissions is the time inconvenience of submitting water samples which can be influenced by the proximity and availability of water testing services. [14][15][16] Water quality submission policies and procedures in place may limit the accessibility and availability of public water testing services. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020), well water testing for microbiological contamination and chemical contamination was offered at no charge to well owners in Alberta through Alberta Health Services (AHS). ...
... 5 Subsequently, proximity to water testing facilities and the hours of operation (ie, water sample acceptance times) become important factors influencing water quality test submissions, especially if the hours of operation of these facilities are limited and inconvenient. 15,16 Evaluating proximity to healthcare services has widely employed GIS tools. Network analysis in GIS offers a vectorbased tool to solve routing problems based on road distance and travel times. ...
... Taking into consideration drive times would be doubled and road route variables are considered, the time taken to public water testing facilities may be a barrier to water sample submission and corroborates with previous literature on the inconvenience of water sample submissions. 15,16,[24][25][26] The use of GIS allows us to quantify travel times further exploring nuances in the access to water testing facilities. Using our methods, future research could utilise data on drive-times to water testing services as a predictor variable of water sample submission within different jurisdictions or catchments. ...
Approximately 10% of Albertans rely on well water for domestic purposes. The responsibility of water testing and stewardship is left to private well owners. Few well water owners conduct routine testing of their well water supplies. Drive times to public water testing facilities may be an important factor limiting a well owner’s ability to conduct routine water testing. The objective of this study is to describe the proximity of water wells, using drive times, to public water testing facilities and describe the availability of facilities based on hours of operation. Using network analysis, we determined the proportion of a sample of wells within 3 estimated drive times of public water testing facilities. 5872 wells were included in the sample. One hundred and seven water testing facilities were mapped within the province. Of the 5872 wells mapped, 89% were located within 30 minutes of a water testing facility, 15% were located within 0 to 10 minutes of a water testing facility, 48% were located between 10 and 20 minutes of a water testing facility and 37% were located within 20 to 30 minutes of a water testing facility. Further analysis revealed that access to water testing facilities may be influenced by the hours of operation of the facilities.
... We also controlled for gender (0 = men, 1 = women), age (in years), and education level (1 = no primary education, 9 = doctorate). These characteristics have been found to relate to both attitudes toward immigrants (Hernes & Knudsen, 1992) and stewardship behavior (Kreutzwiser et al., 2011) and can also be expected to relate to collective psychological ownership. By controlling for them, we rule out the possibility that they confound the relationships we were interested in. ...
People can have a sense of collective ownership of a particular territory, such as “our” country, “our” neighborhood, and “our” park. Collective psychological ownership is argued to go together with rights and responsibilities that have different behavioral implications. We found that collective psychological ownership leads to perceived determination right, and indirectly to the exclusion of outsiders from “our” place. Simultaneously, collective psychological ownership leads to perceived group responsibility, and indirectly to engagement in stewardship behavior. These results were found among Dutch adults, cross-sectionally in relation to their country (Study 1; N = 617) and a neighborhood (Study 2; N = 784), and experimentally in relation to an imaginary local park (Study 3; N = 384, Study 4; N = 502, both pre-registered). Our research shows that the feeling that a place is “ours” can, via perceived rights and responsibilities, result in both exclusionary and prosocial behavioral tendencies.
... For example, Ugas et al. (2019) found that longer-term residents (living on property for over 5 years) were more complacent with respect to testing than shorter-term occupants (1-5 years). This experience (i.e., residential presence), in concurrence with low-risk perception have been shown to influence attitude (i.e., "complacency"), resulting in infrequent well water testing Kreutzwiser et al., 2011). Although relationships between testing behaviours and attitudes, perceptions, and experiences have been found, researchers have not yet developed a comprehensive classification of private well users in the context of multiple cognitive factors and concurrent protective actions (e.g., testing, treatment, bottled water use). ...
... Results from a recent study conducted in the Republic of Ireland support current study findings; Irish well owners were found to exhibit low levels of awareness associated with the relationship between risk factors (e.g., sources of contamination) and groundwater quality (Musacchio et al., 2021). These knowledge gaps, in concurrence with previously 'normal' test results may lead to complacency related to the quality of their own domestic water source, with complacency previously having been associated with infrequent well water quality testing Kreutzwiser et al., 2011), thus likely increasing the frequency and magnitude of exposure to waterborne pathogens among High A/SRP members. ...
... Findings mirror previous studies reporting on females exhibiting higher levels of risk perception, thus increasing the likelihood of adopting protective measures, and consequently, reduced risk exposure (Anthonj et al., 2022;Lavallee et al., 2021a;Munene and Hall, 2019;Severtson et al., 2006). Conversely, low perceptions of risk have been shown to influence attitude (i.e., "complacency"), resulting in infrequent well water testing Kreutzwiser et al., 2011). Thus, findings indicate Low A/SRP members do not adopt protective actions, and consequently, may feel less comfortable consuming their well water in comparison to other clusters. ...
Private well users in Ontario are responsible for protective actions, including source maintenance, treatment, and submitting samples for laboratory testing. However, low participation rates are reported, thus constituting a public health concern, as risk mitigation behaviours can directly reduce exposure to waterborne pathogens. The current study examined the combined effects of socio-demographic profile, experience(s), and "risk domains" (i.e., awareness, attitudes, risk perceptions and beliefs) on behaviours, and subsequently classified private well users in Ontario based on cognitive factors. A province-wide online survey (n = 1228) was employed to quantify On-tario well owners' awareness, perceptions, and behaviours in relation to their personal groundwater supply and local contamination sources. A scoring protocol for four risk domains was developed. Two-step cluster analysis was used to classify respondents based on individual risk domain scores. Logistic regression was employed to identify key variables associated with cluster membership (i.e., profile analysis). Overall, 1140 survey respondents were included for analyses. Three distinct clusters were identified based on two risk domains; groundwater awareness and source risk perception. Profile analyses indicate "low awareness and source risk perception" (Low A/SRP) members were more likely male, while "low awareness and moderate source risk perception" (Low A/ Mod SRP) members were more likely female and bottled water users. Well users characterised as "high awareness and source risk perception" (High A/SRP) were more likely to report higher educational attainment and previous well water testing. Findings illustrate that socio-cognitive clusters and their components (i.e., demographics, awareness, attitudes, perceptions, experiences, and protective actions) are distinct based on the likelihood, frequency , and magnitude of waterborne pathogen exposures (i.e., risk-based). Risk-based clustering, when incorporated into quantitative microbial risk assessment, enables the development of effective risk management and communication initiatives that are demographically focused and tailored to specific subgroups .
