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Map of South Africa showing location of Mpumalanga, Gauteng, and North West provinces and sampling points.
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The ubiquitous occurrence of emerging micropollutants (EMPs) in water is an issue of growing environmental-health concern worldwide. However, there remains a paucity of data regarding their levels and occurrence in water. This study determined the occurrence of EMPs namely: carbamazepine (CBZ), galaxolide (HHCB), caffeine (CAF), tonalide (AHTN), 4-...
Citations
... Anti-depressant drugs are used for mental illness and are also known as opioid drugs. Examples include clozapine, bezafibrate, carbamazepine, dexamethasone, digoxigenin, gabapentin, gemfibrozil, ifosfamide methylparaben, and paraxanthine [32,33,65,66]. Illicit drugs are a group of pharmaceutical drugs used for non-medical benefits. ...
The focus of this review article was to outline the sources, pathways, effects, occurrence, and spatial distribution of the most prescribed pharmaceuticals in wastewater and receiving waters of South Africa. Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus were used to gather data from different regions. A zone-wise classification method was used to determine the spatial distribution and data deficiencies in different regions of South Africa. This review revealed that over 100 pharmaceutical compounds have been reported in South Africa’s various water sources and wastewater, with most studies and highest concentrations being documented in Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal. The pharmaceutical concentration in water samples ranged from ng/L to µg/L. Aspirin, ketoprofen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, erythromycin, tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, acetaminophen, streptomycin, ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, carbamazepine, atenolol, pindolol, efavirenz, and zidovudine residues were among the frequently detected pharmaceutical residues in water bodies and wastewaters of South Africa. Based on the spatial distribution data, Gauteng has the highest number of pharmaceuticals (108) detected in waste and surface water, with the Northern Cape having no monitoring evidence. Therefore, to precisely ascertain the geographical distribution of pharmaceutical contaminants in South Africa, this review recommends that further research be carried out to track their occurrence in aquatic environments and WWTP, especially in isolated regions like Limpopo.
... During field work it was noticed that wastewater effluent were being used by small scale farmers for irrigating vegetables which entail a potential threat to human health due to the bioaccumulation. Exposure to emerging contaminants may cause endocrine disorders, decreased reproductive rates, decreased life expectancy [14], disruption of red and white blood cells, and insomnia, among other things [17]. ...
The number of emerging contaminants in the aquatic environment is growing continuously every year. Their occurrence in water sources could be a troubling problem to aquatic ecosystem and human health. The aim of this study was to assess the environmental risks of selected emerging contaminants in dams/reservoirs and wastewater effluent samples around the city of Bloemfontein, South Africa. The high-performance liquid chromatography connected to a QTRAP hybrid triple quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer was used to analyse emerging contaminants such as acetaminophen, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, triclosan, 17-alpha-ethynyl-estradiol, estradiol, progesterone and testosterone in dams/reservoirs and wastewater effluents. The single and mixture substance ecological risks were evaluated using the risk quotient (RQ) and risk mixture (RQmix) methods respectively. For acute toxicity in dams, results showed that emerging contaminants such as carbamazepine, and 17-alpha-ethynyl-estradiol posed high ecological risks on all aquatic organisms. In effluent, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, triclosan, 17-alpha-ethynyl-estradiol, estradiol, and progesterone posed high risks to all selected species. For chronic toxicity, ibuprofen posed high ecological risks on algae, daphnids, and fish in dams and effluents. The RQmix values in all water sources exceeded the acceptable limit for both acute and chronic toxicity on algae, daphnids, and fish. Their acute mixture risks on aquatic species were as algae>daphnids>fish in targeted water sources while chronic mixture risks were as fish>algae>daphnids in the targeted water sources. Therefore, the level of emerging contaminants in dams/reservoirs and wastewater effluent in this study is likely to negatively pose serious adverse implications on aquatic life and human beings. The outcomes of this study constitute the initial contribution for a better understanding of emerging contaminants risks on aquatic ecosystems and human health and may help in pollution control, protection of aquatic ecosystem and water consumers.
... However, these substances can have negative environmental impacts as they persist and accumulate in various ecosystems due to the inefficiency of conventional wastewater treatment processes in removing them from treated water before their discharge into effluents. Environmentalists have raised concerns about the potential long-term effects of fragrance accumulation on ecosystems [1][2][3][4][5][6]. In cases where conventional treatments are unable to eliminate micropollutants, closer environmental risk monitoring of fragrances prior to their commercial use can be an effective solution. ...
... Specifically, decane was used for the temperature of 345.6 K, and naphthalene was used for the temperature of 333.6 K. Table 4 shows the summary of results obtained for the isomers (the overall results are given in Tables S8 and S9 of Supplementary Materials). The quoted uncertainty includes the root-mean-square deviation of the third-degree polynomial used and the uncertainty of the vibrational frequency scaling factor for the B3LYP/6-31G(d) method [26,28]; 3 The combined standard uncertainty (which includes the uncertainty associated to calibration experiments with decane) and the coverage factor k = 2.16 (for 0.95 level of confidence with an effective degree of freedom of 13, calculated by the Welch-Satterthwaite formula) were used to determine the quoted uncertainty [26]; 4 The combined standard uncertainty (which includes the uncertainty associated to calibration experiments with naphthalene) and the coverage factor k = 2.23 (for 0.95 level of confidence with an effective degrees of freedom of 11, calculated by the Welch-Satterthwaite formula) were used to determine the quoted uncertainty [26]. ...
The enthalpies of formation in the gaseous phase of methyl 3-methylanthranilate and methyl 5-methylanthranilate were determined from experimental measurements of the corresponding standard energies of combustion, obtained from combustion calorimetry, and the standard enthalpies of vaporization and sublimation, obtained from Calvet microcalorimetry and Knudsen mass-loss effusion. A computational study, using the G3(MP2)//B3LYP composite method, has also been performed for the calculation of the gas-phase standard enthalpies of formation of those two molecules at T = 298.15 K, as well as for the remaining isomers, methyl 4-methylanthranilate and methyl 6-methylanthranilate. The results have been used to evaluate and analyze the energetic effect of the methyl substituent in different positions of the ring.
... In another study targeting the emerging micropollutants in water systems in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and North West Provinces, South Africa, the mean concentration of carbamazepine in Mpumalanga surface water was reported as 29 ng/ℓ while in Roodeplat dam in Gauteng was 1.75 ng/ℓ. Furthermore, carbamazepine mean concentration of 52.35 ng/ℓ was reported in Hartbeespoort 8-Megalies River in Northwest Province [146]. ...
... In a study aimed at the occurrence of emerging micro-pollutants in water systems in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and North West Provinces, South Africa, caffeine was detected in surface water from Mpumalanga Province and Gauteng Roodeplat dam at a mean concentration of 82.41 ng/ℓ and 2.23 ng/ℓ respectively. The same study also reported its mean concentration in surface water of 1-Krokodil River in the Northwest Province as 81.24 ng/ℓ [146]. Mhuka et al. [142] conducted a study to determine the occurrence of pharmaceutical and personal care products in wastewater and receiving waters and detected caffeine in upper stream of Apies River at a concentration ranging from 4.09-2 785 μg/ℓ. ...
... Furthermore, Archer et al. [138] studied the pharmaceutical and personal care products as endocrine disrupting contaminants in South African surface waters and observed carbamazepine in influent at a concentration ranging from 0.3-0.6 μg/ℓ and in effluent at a mean concentration of 0.4 μg/ℓ around Gauteng. In another study conducted targeting emerging micropollutants in water systems in Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West provinces, South Africa a mean concentration of carbamazepine in Mpumalanga effluent was reported as 58 ng/ℓ [146]. ...
Advance in methods of detection for some organic chemicals in water sources has steered the screening and quantification of high quantity of contaminants collectively with their end products, which formerly were not identified in water sources and are currently recognized as emerging contaminants. The accumulation and discovery of levels of these emerging contaminants in water sources has reduced water quality and made it risky for aquatic and human life. Exposure to these organic contaminants may trigger serious health effects. The aim of this book is to give a comprehensive review of global occurrence of emerging contaminants in various water sources such as surface water, groundwater, treated drinking water and wastewater influent and effluent. The book introduces audience to concepts of water sources, emerging contaminants, point sources and non-point sources of emerging contaminants. It offers a glimpse of international and South African case studies on the occurrence of emerging contaminants precisely herbicides, pharmaceutical, steroid hormones and personal care products in water sources as well as in wastewater treatment works. The analytical and removal methods of emerging contaminants in water sources are also covered. Moreover, information on possible environmental health impacts ensuing from exposure to emerging contaminants and their possible mitigation measures (such as classification and labelling methods; point source separation methods; regulating the release of emerging contaminants) are discussed. The occurrence of emerging contaminants around the world (Africa, America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania) is likely to upsurge in water sources and wastewater treatment works as a results of rise in population which is a public health concern. Therefore, more studies that report on the widespread of emerging contaminants in water sources, and their associated environmental health risks are needed to help regulators in establishing priority measures for management of water resources.
... It was assumed from the obtained linear calibration curves for each PAH that the GC × GC-TOF-MS response matrix Y was linearly related to the descriptor matrix X for a limited range of concentrations. The LOD and LOQ for each PAH were thus determined based on the residual standard deviation of a regression line or the standard deviation (SD) of the y-intercepts of the regression line of the calibration curve and the sensitivity or slope of the regression line, as shown in Equations (1) and (2) [46]. ...
In this study, functionalized mesoporous silica was prepared and characterized as a stationary phase using various analytical and solid-state techniques, including a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, thermogravimetric analysis, and nitrogen sorption. The results confirmed the successful synthesis of the hybrid stationary phase. The potential of the prepared hybrid mesoporous silica as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) stationary phase for separating and enriching polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in both spiked water samples and real water samples was evaluated. The analysis involved extracting the PAHs from the water samples using solid-phase extraction and analyzing the extracts using a two-dimensional gas chromatograph coupled to a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (GC × GC-TOFMS). The synthesized sorbent exhibited outstanding performance in extracting PAHs from both spiked water samples and real water samples. In the spiked water samples, the recoveries of the PAHs ranged from 79.87% to 95.67%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranging from 1.85% to 8.83%. The limits of detection (LOD) for the PAHs were in the range of 0.03 µg/L to 0.04 µg/L, while the limits of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.05 µg/L to 3.14 µg/L. Furthermore, all the calibration curves showed linearity, with correlation coefficients (r) above 0.98. Additionally, the results from real water samples indicated that the levels of individual PAH detected ranged from 0.57 to 12.31 µg/L with a total of 44.67 µg/L. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of the hybrid mesoporous silica as a promising stationary phase for solid-phase extraction and sensitive detection of PAHs in water samples.
... Furthermore, investigations done in LICs found surfactants in DWS. For instance, 4-nonylphenol was found in shallow wells, surface water, and boreholes in South Africa [77]. Prolonged exposure to such contaminated water could cause adverse human health effects (Table 4). ...
... A high global mortality rate (>1 per 10 5 ) is attributed to unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WHO, 2019) with African countries and other low-and middle-income countries having rates of >0.1 %. This shows the disease burden and mortality due to water contaminants, including EOCs, which are attributed to several risk factors some [77]. Proximity to human activity, industrial and agricultural wastewater sources increase the occurrence of EOCs and exposes not only communities in the vicinity, but also end users of drinking water and aquatic foods [177][178][179]. ...
... Apart from these, pharmaceuticals such as acetaminophen, caffeine, and sulfamethoxazole, are commonly associated with wastewater treatment plants. These were found ubiquitous across seasons and in water from all source types, but highest concentrations were recorded in cold seasons, corresponding to high consumer use and lower environmental attenuation rates [77]. ...
Emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) of anthropogenic origins are ubiquitous in environmental compartments, including aquatic systems. Thus, EOCs have attracted considerable research and public attention due to their potential human and ecological health risks. However, compared to other aquatic environments such as wastewater systems, comprehensive reviews focussing on the occurrence and human health risks of EOCs in drinking water systems are still lacking. Therefore, to address this knowledge gap, the current review posits that drinking water systems harbour a cocktail of toxic EOCs, which pose public health risks via multiple exposure routes. In the present review, global evidence is examined to track EOCs along the source-pathway-receptor-impact-mitigation (SPRIM) continuum. Evidence shows that, various groups of EOCs, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products, solvents, plasticizers, endocrine disrupting compounds, gasoline additives, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), food colourants, artificial sweeteners, and musks and fragrances, have been detected in drinking water systems. The anthropogenic sources of EOCs detected in drinking water systems, including wastewater systems and industrial emissions, are summarized. Further, the behaviour and fate of EOCs in the drinking water systems, including removal processes are discussed. Once in drinking water systems, human exposure to EOCs may occur via ingestion of contaminated drinking water and cooked foods, and possibly dermal contact and inhalation. The high-risk environments, and risk factors and behaviours predisposing humans to EOC exposure are discussed. Evidence on the human health risks of the various EOCs and a critique of the data are presented. Notably, besides inferential data, quantitative epidemiological evidence directly relating the occurrence of EOCs in drinking water systems to specific adverse human health outcomes is still scarce. Lastly, future research directions, including the need for quantitative public health risk assessment, and the application of emerging detection tools are discussed.
... Bisphenol-A was the most widespread micropollutant and was present in 62% of the water samples. The detected contaminants presented an ecotoxicological risk based on the water samples, especially for samples from the Mpumalanga province [22]. ...
Active substances detected in surface water in Hungary today include pain and anti-inflammatory agents and antiepileptics, as wastewater treatment mechanisms cannot remove these micropollutants. The aim of our research is to detect residues of four pain-killer drugs—naproxen, nimesulide, diclofenac, and ibuprofen—and an anti-epileptic drug—carbamazepine—in water samples we collected (n = 8) from the Danube. Our samples were concentrated using solid-phase extraction and then detected with HPLC. During the evaluation, we looked for a significant difference in the concentration of the active substances. Naproxen was detectable in the largest amount in one sampling point, with an average concentration of 12,029.337 ± 1772.957 ng/L, while ibuprofen was present in the second highest concentration in another sampling site, which reached an average concentration of 4048.112 ± 2086.789 ng/L. We examined water samples taken from the same sampling sites but at different distances from the riverbank, and we found a significant difference regarding the active substance naproxen at the sampling site in Budapest District XX. The analytes were detected in varying amounts in all the water samples, so the contamination in the examined section is significant. Examining the turnover data on medicines and our results, we concluded that pharmaceutical consumption significantly contributes to the pollution of the Danube. In order to protect water quality, further research would be advisable in the field of mechanisms for wastewater treatment in order to achieve the complete removal of drug residues from wastewater.
... The concentrations of BPA detected around farms, surface water, and sewage treatment plants in South Africa reached 1.14 µg/L, 0-181.28 µg/L, and Nd-0.02 µg/L, respectively [8][9][10], and BPA with a concentration of 0.18-0.4 µg/L was also detected in surface water and groundwater in Nigeria [11]. ...
As a widespread pollutant, bisphenol A (BPA) has created a serious threat to ecosystem and human health. Therefore, expanding the available microbial resources used to screen highly efficient BPA-degrading bacteria with BPA as the sole carbon source is very important for the removal of this pollutant from the environment. In this study, the BPA degradation rate of Pseudomonas sp. P1 to 30 mg/L was 96.89% within 120 h. Whole genome sequencing showed that the genome of strain P1 was composed of a single circular chromosome with a full length of 6.17 Mb, which contained 5636 predicted coding genes. Comparative genomic analysis showed that strain P1 contained 210 functional genes related to BPA degradation. It was confirmed that BPA degradation genes ferredoxin (bisdA), P450 (bisdB), CotA and Lac in strain P1 were highly expressed under the induction of BPA. Combined with the identification of metabolites, the route of BPA degradation by Pseudomonas was proposed. A new metabolite, 4-vinylphenol, was detected for the first time in pathway Ⅰ. In pathway Ⅱ, BPA is directly oxidized to phenol and 4-isopropenyl phenol in the presence of laccase, which is rarely reported in the process of bacterial degradation of BPA. This study confirmed that strain P1 had good tolerance to various environmental factors at the gene level and enriched the degradation mechanism of BPA.
... They are highly polar, hydrophilic and resistant to biodegradation. Many emerging pollutants can enter the biosphere through groundwater and surface water (Gondi et al. 2022;Wanda et al. 2017). Some emerging pollutants may interfere with human enzymatic activities, hormones, or be mutagenic (Basheer 2018). ...
Although research on biochar has received increasing attention for environmental and agricultural applications, the significance of nanobiochar for environmental pollutant remediation is poorly understood. In contrast to bulk biochar, nanobiochar has superior physicochemical properties such as high catalytic activity, unique nanostructure, large specific surface area and high mobility in the soil environment. These unique characteristics make nanobiochar an ideal candidate for pollution remediation. Thus far, the research on nanobiochar is still in its infancy and most of the previous studies have only been conducted for exploring its properties and environmental functions. The lack of in-depth summary of nanobiochar’s research direction makes it a challenge for scientists and researchers globally. Hence in this review, we established some key fabrication methods for nanobiochar with a focus on its performance for the removal of pollutants from the environment. We also provided up-to-date information on nanobiochar’s role in environmental remediation and insights into different mechanisms involved in the pollutant removal. Although, nanobiochar application is increasing, the associated drawbacks to the soil ecosystem have not received enough research attention. Therefore, further research is warranted to evaluate the potential environmental risks of nanobiochar before large scale application.
Graphical Abstract
... The pharmaceuticals quantified in surface water from Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe range from 1 ng/L to 0.1495 μg/ml. Recently, studies investigated the occurrence of different EDCs in surface water from Pretoria (Mhuka et al., 2020), Western Cape , Johannesburg (Amdany et al., 2014), North West (Kanama et al., 2018), Gauteng (Archer et al., 2017;Wanda et al., 2017) and Pietermaritzburg (Manickum and John, 2014) in South Africa. The concentrations of EDCs range between 0.9 ng/L and 3.45 μg/L. ...
... In groundwater, triclosan and N, Ndiethyl-m-toluamide (0.03-1.8 mg/L) were detected from Kabwe, Zambia (Sorensen et al., 2015). The detected personal care items in surface water are 4-nonylphenol, galaxolide, tonalide, methylparaben, propylparaben, benzophenone-3 benzophenone-4, triclosan, and triclocarban in different locations from Southern Africa (Archer et al., 2017;Madikizela et al., 2014;Mhuka et al., 2020;Wanda et al., 2017). The concentrations of PCPs were between 0.3 ng/L and 1.8 mg/L. ...
... Thus, human and aquatic species' exposure to freshwater containing pesticides indicates human health and ecotoxicological risks as evaluated in East Africa (Materu et al., 2021;Mekonen et al., 2016;Ndunda et al., 2018), West Africa (Douny et al., 2021;Lawrence et al., 2015;Lehmann et al., 2018;Ntow, 2005;Ogbeide et al., 2015;Tongo et al., 2014) and Central Africa (Branchet et al., 2018). Risk assessment of some pharmaceuticals such as ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, norfloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, lamivudine, zidovudine, 17β-estradiol (βE2), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), and nevirapine etc., showed acute to chronic risks to aquatic species and human as well as the development of antibiotic resistance in Groundwater, treated wastewater, and surface water from East Africa (Bagnis et al., 2020;Damkjaer et al., 2018;Kairigo et al., 2020;Muriuki et al., 2020;Nantaba et al., 2020;Ngumba et al., 2016), West Africa (Azanu et al., 2018(Azanu et al., , 2021Inam et al., 2015;Lan et al., 2019;Ogunwole and Saliu, 2020;Olaitan et al., 2018), South Africa (Manickum and John, 2014;Wanda et al., 2017) and North Africa (Harrabi et al., 2018). In water samples obtained from Egypt, ecotoxicological risk assessments of bisphenol A (EDC) and personal care products (methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben, and ophenylphenol) showed risk to aquatic species (Radwan et al., 2019). ...
This review look at several classes of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in conventional and non-conventional water resources across the African continent's five regions. According to the review, pharmaceuticals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, personal care products, pesticides, per- and polyfluoroalkyl compounds, and microplastics were found in conventional and non-conventional water resources. Most conventional water resources, such as rivers, streams, lakes, wells, and boreholes, are used as drinking water sources. Non-conventional water sources, such as treated wastewater (effluents), are used for domestic and agricultural purposes. However, CECs remain part of the treated wastewater, which is being discharged to surface water or used for agriculture. Thus, wastewater (effluent) is the main contributor to the pollution of other water resources. For African countries, the prevalence of rising emerging pollutants in water poses a severe environmental threat. There are different adverse effects of CECs, including the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, ecotoxicological effects, and several endocrine disorders. Therefore, this needs the urgent attention of the African Union, policymakers, Non-Governmental Organizations, and researchers to come together and tackle the problem.
