Figure 1 - uploaded by Andrew Newton
Content may be subject to copyright.
Map of Liverpool key administrative areas
Similar publications
![Fig.1. Modulation of Methyl Transferase[6]. Modulation of...](profile/Sahaya-Nadar/publication/299366353/figure/fig1/AS:349622158544911@1460367826678/Modulation-of-Methyl-Transferase6-Modulation-of-Methyltransferases-ie-pharmacological_Q320.jpg)
Citations
... While target hardening has been employed internationally and widely cited as an effective strategy for burglary reduction (Weisel 2002;Hirschfield 2004;Reynald 2014;Tilley et al. 1999), several initiatives specific to government subsidised targethardening of homes include: Kirkholt burglary reduction project (Pease 1991;Tilley 1993); Liverpool Citysafe (Newton et al. 2008); the Safer Cities programme (Ekblom et al. 1996); the Secured by Design (SBD) initiative (Armitage 2000;Cozens et al. 2004); the Burglary Reduction Initiative as part of the government's Crime Reduction Programme (Maguire 2004;Tilley 2004); Locks for Pensioners (Mawby and Jones 2006); and the Distraction Burglary initiative (Thornton et al. 2003). Many of the above-named projects, many of which have been located in the UK, including the Kirkholt project, prioritized recent victims of burglary. ...
In response to an increase in the number of burglaries in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) from 2014 to 2020, the ACT government funded the development of a home-based Burglary prevention program. The aim of the program is to improve household security particularly for those properties at heightened risk of victimisation and re-victimisation. The program consisted of security assessments of properties and, based on assessments, installation of security devices for eligible program clients. Results from the evaluation reveal that the program produces positive benefits overall in terms of enhanced security, reduced risk of re-victimisation, improvement in perceived sense of personal security, and positive economic return on investment.
... According to Portland State University (2010), a burglar's selection of potential targets also reflects his or her desire to find the most accessible dwelling with easy entry and exit. Newton, Rogerson and Hirschfield (2008) explain "target hardening" as a term used to describe the process of increasing the security of a property to make it more difficult to burgle, thereby increasing the effort needed by the offender to gain entry to a property. However, FBI Statistics (U.S. ...
... Cornish and Clarke (2003) confirm target hardening is a well-established strategy within situational crime prevention. Target hardening has been employed internationally and has been widely cited as an effective strategy for burglary reduction (Weisel 2002;Hirschfield 2004;Millie and Hough 2004;Hamilton--Smith and Kent 2005;Newton et al. 2008). In addition, Bond and Hajjar (2013) confirm that effective strategies to reduce property crime include target hardening measures. ...
... Various authors confirmed target hardening has been employed internationally and has been widely cited as an effective strategy for burglary reduction (Bond and Hajjar 2013;Weisel 2002;Hirschfield 2004;Millie and Hough 2004;Hamilton--Smith & Kent 2005;Newton et al. 2008). Sanders et al. 2017 are of the view that although deliberate burglars are more likely to engage in creative techniques and use tools during their burglary, more often than not they will avoid unnecessary risks and attempt to locate a target with fewer obstacles to overcome. ...
The topic of crime and violence often dominates discussions about South Africa. Excessive crime rates cause wide-reaching feelings of anxiety and fear of crime and associated violence among citizens. Research on the broad spectrum of crime and violence in South Africa has captured the imagination of many researchers internationally. Crime and violence have become part of daily life for many people living in South Africa. Commentators frequently report on the extreme prevalence of violent crime in South Africa and often label the country as one of the most violent in the world. The nature and the extent of crime and violence in the country not only influence citizens’ well-being but also have an overwhelming effect on the social structure of communities. Empirical evidence shows that the extent of violence and crime in South Africa is greater than the extent of violence and crime generally experienced globally. Why is violent crime so prevalent in South Africa? This chapter provides some insight into the violent characteristics of crime victimisation in South Africa. It provides a brief historical background of and insight into violence and crime in South Africa; describes the nature and the extent of violent crime in South Africa; explains the risk factors of crime victimisation and violence in South Africa; and illustrates South Africans’ perceptions and experiences of crime and violence. Instead of being based on theory alone, this chapter draws on the narratives of victims behind South Africa’s statistics of violent crime victimisation.
... According to Portland State University (2010), a burglar's selection of potential targets also reflects his or her desire to find the most accessible dwelling with easy entry and exit. Newton, Rogerson and Hirschfield (2008) explain "target hardening" as a term used to describe the process of increasing the security of a property to make it more difficult to burgle, thereby increasing the effort needed by the offender to gain entry to a property. However, FBI Statistics (U.S. ...
... Cornish and Clarke (2003) confirm target hardening is a well-established strategy within situational crime prevention. Target hardening has been employed internationally and has been widely cited as an effective strategy for burglary reduction (Weisel 2002;Hirschfield 2004;Millie and Hough 2004;Hamilton--Smith and Kent 2005;Newton et al. 2008). In addition, Bond and Hajjar (2013) confirm that effective strategies to reduce property crime include target hardening measures. ...
... Various authors confirmed target hardening has been employed internationally and has been widely cited as an effective strategy for burglary reduction (Bond and Hajjar 2013;Weisel 2002;Hirschfield 2004;Millie and Hough 2004;Hamilton--Smith & Kent 2005;Newton et al. 2008). Sanders et al. 2017 are of the view that although deliberate burglars are more likely to engage in creative techniques and use tools during their burglary, more often than not they will avoid unnecessary risks and attempt to locate a target with fewer obstacles to overcome. ...
Commentators frequently report on the high prevalence of violent crime in South Africa and often label the country as one of the most violent in the world, with a subculture of violence and criminality. This paper focuses on a different perspective, reporting on the excessive use of force and destruction caused by offenders in South Africa to gain entry to victims' properties in the execution of non-violent property crimes, in a particular residential burglary. Literature on property crimes has been considering the aggravating circumstances of violent property crimes. However, the use of excessive force and destruction caused by burglars to gain access to victims' properties in the execution of residential burglary remains relatively untested in the literature. In this light, the purpose of this study is to describe the unprecedented levels of force used and destruction caused by burglars to gain access to victims' properties during residential burglary victimisation in an urban residential neighbourhood in Johannesburg, South Africa. A qualitative research approach is followed. A case study design was used to select an urban residential neighbourhood in Johannesburg as a case study. A data set of (n = 1 431) crimes were purposively selected by means of non-probability sampling. Qualitative and quantitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. This paper offers valuable insight into the forceful and destructive conduct of burglars in the selected neighbourhood and contributes to the body of knowledge by providing an improved understanding of target hardening as a preventive measure against residential burglary victimisation as well as on methods of entry used by burglars in incidents of residential burglary. The results of reported non-violent property crime victimisation incidences by this community's neighbourhood watch scheme suggest that residential burglars in the selected neighbourhood are uncharacteristically forceful and ravage in their actions since they frequently revert to extreme use of force and destruction, disproportionate to the crime perpetrated. It is concluded that this radical degree of force used and destruction caused by residential burglars to gain entry to victims' properties in the execution of non-violent property crimes is not typically associated with residential burglary as compared to countries internationally.
... Field of view (Vi1), parking pattern (Vi2), height of the fence (Vi3), transparency of the fence (Vi4), and space between row houses (Vi5) indicate the range of visibility when an offender is committing a burglary ("visibility") (Cromwell & Olson, 2005;Hedayati Marzbali, Abdullah, Razak, & Maghsoodi Tilaki, 2012). Distance between row houses (Ac1), EGP 2 (Ac2), outer molding (Ac3), balcony (Ac4), air conditioner equipment (Ac5), location of the fence (Ac6), street-parked vehicles (Ac7), canopy (Ac8), facade shape (Ac9), piloti (Ac10), balustrade (Ac11), and security grille (Ac12) indicate how easy it is to break into the target house ("accessibility") (Chang, 2009;Hedayati Marzbali et al., 2012;Newton, Rogerson, & Hirschfield, 2008). Deterioration of the row house's appearance (At1) indicates how economically attractive the target house is to an offender ("attractiveness") (Bernasco & Luykx, 2003;Chang, 2009). ...
Current methods for predicting residential burglaries mostly rely on analyses of crime patterns based on a real information. While this model is valid on an urban scale, it fails to consider street-scale environmental factors as well as offender behaviors in response to those factors. To improve the predictability of crime-simulation studies, this study investigated two influential factors in the occurrence of residential burglary: the physical properties of building elements and offender behaviors in response to those properties. First, a prediction algorithm was designed based on analyses of the factors. Next, a prediction method was established by modeling a virtual 3-D environment and a virtual offender using the algorithm. Lastly, the probability of residential burglary was analyzed via a simulation using the prediction method. A comparison of the simulation results with actual residential burglary data confirmed that the proposed method has statistically significant predictability.
... This can be affected by the number of potential entry points: terraced houses (Felson, 2002) and ground-floor corner flats (Robinson and Robinson, 1997) have been found to have a higher burglary risk. Physical target hardening (ie, reducing the ease of access to the property) and educating victims have been found to reduce risk in a wide variety of contexts (Hamilton-Smith and Kent, 2005;Hirschfield, 2004;Newton et al, 2008;Nicholas et al, 2005;Weisel, 2002). Security A measure of the effective physical security of the house. ...
Making realistic predictions about the occurrence of crime is a challenging research area. City-wide crime patterns depend on the behaviour and interactions of a huge number of people (including victims, offenders, and passers-by) as well as a multitude of environmental factors. Modern criminology theory has highlighted the individual-level nature of crime-whereby overall crime rates emerge from individual crimes that are committed by individual people in individual places-but traditional modelling methodologies struggle to capture the complex dynamics of the system. The decision whether or not to commit a burglary, for example, is based on a person's unique behavioural circumstances and the immediate surrounding environment. To address these problems, individual-level simulation techniques such as agent-based modelling have begun to spread to the field of criminology. These models simulate the behaviour of individual people and objects directly; virtual 'agents' are placed in an environment that allows them to travel through space and time, behaving as they would do in the real world. We outline an advanced agent-based model that can be used to simulate occurrences of residential burglary at an individual level. The behaviour within the model closely represents criminology theory and uses real-world data from the city of Leeds, UK as an input. We demonstrate the use of the model to predict the effects of a real urban regeneration scheme on local households.
... In this context, violence may be an inevitable consequence of drug prohibition when groups compete for massive profits without recourse to formal non-violent negotiation and dispute resolution mechanisms (Miron, 1999;Resignato, 2000). Additionally, 'target hardening', wherein vulnerable entities become increasingly militarized in the face of risk of attack (Newton, Rogerson, & Hirschfield, 2008), has occurred amongst drug organizations facing increased drug law enforcement. In particular, the escalating militarization of drug cartels in the face of government enforcement operations has been documented in Mexico, where the emergence of the Zetas, former Mexican special forces soldiers, as criminal players in the drug market has resulted in increased violence and homicides (Sullivan & Elkus, 2008). ...
Violence is amongst the primary concerns of communities around the world and research has demonstrated links between violence and the illicit drug trade, particularly in urban settings. Given the growing emphasis on evidence-based policy-making, and the ongoing severe drug market violence in Mexico and other settings, we conducted a systematic review to examine the impacts of drug law enforcement on drug market violence. We conducted a systematic review using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Specifically, we undertook a search of English language electronic databases (Academic Search Complete, PubMed, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Web of Science, Sociological Abstracts, Social Service Abstracts, PAIS International and Lexis-Nexis), the Internet (Google, Google Scholar), and article reference lists, from database inception to January 24, 2011. Overall, 15 studies were identified that evaluated the impact of drug law enforcement on drug market violence, including 11 (73%) longitudinal analyses using linear regression, 2 (13%) mathematical drug market models, and 2 (13%) qualitative studies. Fourteen (93%) studies reported an adverse impact of drug law enforcement on levels of violence. Ten of the 11 (91%) studies employing longitudinal qualitative analyses found a significant association between drug law enforcement and drug market violence. Our findings suggest that increasing drug law enforcement is unlikely to reduce drug market violence. Instead, the existing evidence base suggests that gun violence and high homicide rates may be an inevitable consequence of drug prohibition and that disrupting drug markets can paradoxically increase violence. In this context, and since drug prohibition has not meaningfully reduced drug supply, alternative regulatory models will be required if drug supply and drug market violence are to be meaningfully reduced.
... An unknown number of residents declined the offer of target hardening (these details were not recorded). The majority of target hardening was rolled out across Liverpool one an area at a time, the locations of which reflected the geographical boundaries of the variant funding streams (Newton, Rogerson and Hirschfield, 2008). ...
... The hot spot analysis technique employed was Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) interpolation, using CrimeStat 3 http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/CRIMESTAT/ seeNewton, Rogerson and Hirschfield (2008) for further discussion of the methodology used. ...
This article draws on a recent study that examined the impact of target hardening on domestic burglary in the City of Liverpool, England, between July 2005 and December 2007. Individual property-level data, from a range of sources, were collated for each residential property in the City enabling details about burglaries (timing, location, modus operandi) to be linked to data on the nature, timing, and location of target-hardening activity. Properties were grouped according to the presence or absence of burglary and/or target hardening at each address and the sequence of events. Groups included properties burgled, target hardened, and not subsequently burgled; no prior burglary, target hardened, subsequent burglary; burgled, never target hardened, and other combinations.The results suggest that property-level data give a richer picture of the relationship between burglary and target hardening than is possible using aggregate data at an area level.
Due to the complexity of human behaviour and the intricacies of the urban environment, it is extremely difficult to understanding
and model crime patterns. Nevertheless, a greater understanding of the processes and drivers behind crime is essential for
researchers to be able to properly model crime and for policy-makers to be able to predict the potential effects of their
interventions. Traditional mathematical models that use spatially aggregated data struggle to capture the low-level dynamics
of the crime system – such as an individual person’s behaviour – and hence fail to encapsulate the factors that characterise
the system and lead to the emergence of city-wide crime rates.
This chapter will outline a realistic agent-based model that can be used to simulate, at the level of individual houses and
offenders, occurrences of crime in a real city. In particular, the research focuses on the crime of residential burglary in
the city of Leeds, UK. The model is able to predict which places might have a heightened burglary risk as a direct result
of a real urban regeneration scheme in the local area.
