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Map of Karnataka showing the locations of different scorpion species. At the bottom: a Hottentotta rugiscutis (Pocock, 1897); b Hottentotta tamulus (Fabricius, 1798); c Lychas tricarinatus (Simon, 1884), d Heterometrus swammerdami (Simon, 1872)
Source publication
Maintenance of scorpions under laboratory conditions is ideal for long-term venom collection to explore the therapeutic applications of scorpion venom. Collection of venom by electrical stimulation requires a reliable stimulator and effective restrainer. Thus, the present study was conducted to develop a convenient method to maintain scorpions and...
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Evolution and natural selection have endowed animal venoms, including scorpion venoms, with a wide range of pharmacological properties. Consequently, scorpions, their venoms, and/or their body parts have been used since time immemorial in traditional medicines, especially in Africa and Asia. With respect to their pharmacological potential, bioactiv...
Pain, though unpleasant, is adaptive in calling an animal’s attention to potential tissue damage. A long list of animals representing diverse taxa possess venom-mediated, pain-inducing bites or stings that work by co-opting the pain-sensing pathways of potential enemies. Typically, such venoms include toxins that cause tissue damage or disrupt neur...
Among other scorpion species, Colombia has two genera of the Buthidae family Centruroides and Tityus, considered to be dangerous to humans. This research shares scientific knowledge aiming to a better understanding about the pathophysiological effects of such venoms. The venom of the three species: Centruroides margaritarus, Tityus pachyurus, and T...
Background: Androctonus crassicauda is the most medically relevant animal and understanding its morphological characteristics is essential in the production of antiscorpion sera.
Methods: Adults of A. crassicauda were collected from different areas of Zanjan Province and the morphometric parameters and the cuticular fluorescence patterns of sampl...
Citations
... The Hottentotta rugiscutis scorpion venom was collected and partially purified as described earlier (Nagaraj et al., 2015). Female Swiss albino mice of 6-8 weeks old (20-25 g) were maintained at room temperature (RT) with rodent chow and tap water ad libitum. ...
The Hottentotta rugiscutis scorpion venom (Hrv) contains neurotoxins, which elicit a strong innate immune response through the activation of the Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which could improve the quality of adaptive immunity. Hence, the Hrv was used as an adjuvant for the Hepatitis-B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) and assessed its ability in the activation of innate (NGF, CORT, cellularity, NO) and adaptive (IgM, IgG, IgG1/IgG2a/IgG2b/IgG3, Th1/Th2 cytokines, avidity) immunity. Here, the Hrv and HBsAg were given in the mixed form (HBsAg-Hrv) as well as in a separate form (HBsAg+Hrv). The NGF levels in plasma/spleen and CORT in plasma were found to be elevated optimally at 5 h and 6 h post-Hrv injection, respectively. Further studies showed that CORT and NGF levels were also highly upregulated in the HBsAg-Hrv group. The HBsAg-specific IgM titer was found to be increased in the HBsAg+Hrv group and total IgG was relatively similar among alum and Hrv-test groups, but IgG2a/IgG2b/IgG3 levels were higher along with IL-1β in HBsAg-Hrv groups. The study showed that the venom from H. rugiscutis acts as a vaccine adjuvant for HBsAg to develop strong antigen-specific Th1 immunity. The Hrv also enhances the antibody-avidity which may improve the neutralizing ability of antibodies with systemic infectious agents. The study also elucidated that the venom acts by neuroendocrine-immune mechanism and majorly impacts splenocytes through NGF and corticosterone.
... The Hottentotta rugiscutis scorpion venom was collected and partially purified as described earlier (Nagaraj et al., 2015). Female Swiss albino mice of 6-8 weeks old (20-25 g) were maintained at room temperature (RT) with rodent chow and tap water ad libitum. ...
The Hottentotta rugiscutis scorpion venom (Hrv) contains neurotoxins, which elicit a strong innate immune response through the activation of the Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which could improve the quality of adaptive immunity. Hence, the Hrv was used as an adjuvant for the Hepatitis-B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) and assessed its ability in the activation of innate (NGF, CORT, cellularity, NO) and adaptive (IgM, IgG, IgG1/IgG2a/IgG2b/IgG3, Th1/Th2 cytokines, avidity) immunity. Here, the Hrv and HBsAg were given in the mixed form (HBsAg-Hrv) as well as in a separate form (HBsAg+Hrv). The NGF levels in plasma/spleen and CORT in plasma were found to be elevated optimally at 5 h and 6 h post-Hrv injection, respectively. Further studies showed that CORT and NGF levels were also highly upregulated in the HBsAg-Hrv group. The HBsAg-specific IgM titer was found to be increased in the HBsAg+Hrv group and total IgG was relatively similar among alum and Hrv-test groups, but IgG2a/IgG2b/IgG3 levels were higher along with IL-1β in HBsAg-Hrv groups. The study showed that the venom from H. rugiscutis acts as a vaccine adjuvant for HBsAg to develop strong antigen-specific Th1 immunity. The Hrv also enhances the antibody-avidity which may improve the neutralizing ability of antibodies with systemic infectious agents. The study also elucidated that the venom acts by neuroendocrine-immune mechanism and majorly impacts splenocytes through NGF and corticosterone.
... In India, most of the studies have been focused on the venom from H. tamulus, a buthid scorpion. The H. rugiscutis is another clinically important scorpion which also belongs to the Buthidae family and is found abundantly in the drylands of Karnataka (Nagaraj et al., 2015) and Kerala (Sureshan et al., 2007), with many unreported cases of envenomation observed in the regions of Karnataka. However, to date, there is not much research on the proteomics of venom from this species and its characterization could give insights on the significance at the pharmacological and pathological level. ...
... The supernatant was collected, lyophilized and stored at − 20 • C until further use. The venom was dissolved in PBS for further experimental studies (Nagaraj et al., 2015). For all the experiments, only HrvC was used, except for the studies on mass spectrometry, where both HrvH and HrvC were used. ...
... In our previous study with female Swiss albino mice, LD 50 of Hrv was found to be 3.02 mg/kg body weight (Nagaraj et al., 2015). At this dose, Hrv caused irritation, hyperexcitability, salivation, lacrimation, paralysis and convulsions. ...
The scorpions of the Buthidae family exhibit diverse toxins with proven pharmacological activities and yet underexplored. The Hottentotta rugiscutis is a commonly found south-Indian buthid scorpion, whose venom proteomic profile is unknown. In this study, the venom was biochemically and immunologically characterized by SDS-PAGE, MALDI-TOF MS, western blot and ELISA. The regional and seasonal variation in the venom composition from the same species was also assessed at the molecular mass level. The venom was further studied in albino mice to understand its impact on various blood parameters. The venom has varied MW proteins between 6-275 kDa, four of them were found to be major immunodominant proteins. The mass spectra have revealed that some proteins are predominantly present in the venom of 3–4.5 kDa or 6.5–8.0 kDa, which could be the K+ or Na+ channel blockers respectively whose ratio varied by season. The obtained venom-mass spectra could also be used as H. rugiscutis specific finger-print in identifying the region-specific species. The venom was found to elicit a stress-induced innate immune response in mice, giving rise to a strong Th2 mediated humoral immune response. Overall, this study has provided a glimpse of the venom composition and its immunogenicity.
... Such diversity has allowed them to inhabit all environments on the planet (Smarandache-Wellmann, 2016). Scorpions belong to the order Scorpiones in the class Arachnida, although the placement of scorpions in Arachnida has also been seen as controversial (Nagaraj et al., 2015;Sharma et al., 2015). Scorpions are nocturnal predators, with a long lifespan and a low metabolic rate (Lourenço and Francke, 1985). ...
Scorpion fauna of Algeria is insufficiently known. This study was carried out to assess seasonal changes of the scorpion biodiversity at the region of Tebessa (northeastern Algeria) along a climatic gradient including semiarid, arid and desertic climates randomized sampling was carried out at three sites stratified according to a climatic gradient. Sites visits were carried out 16 times per year at each site for a period of 2 h for each field trip. The distribution of the scorpions was studied by ecological descriptors and by statistical analyzes. In this study, 257 scorpion specimens belonging to the families Buthidae (64%) and Scorpionidae (36%) were collected. The Buthidae family was represented by four species: Buthus tunetanus (Herbst, 1800) (26%), Buthus aures Lourenço, 2016 (21%), Androctonus australis Ewing, 1928 (14%) and Androctonus aeneas (Koch, 1839) (3%), while the Scorpionidae was represented by a single species, Scorpio punicus Fet, 2000, which was also the most abundant at 36%. Statistical models revealed that climatic gradient and seasonal variation significantly influenced the distribution and the biodiversity of scorpions and that ecological descriptors were strongly correlated with climatic gradient and seasonal variation. This work constitutes the first study carried out on the scorpion diversity in northeastern Algeria. Thus, planning of control programs for the species identified in this area is essential.
... were active and healthy with a 100% survival rate. The use of a Petri dish as a water trough makes the water easily accessible to all scorpions as also reported (Nagaraj et al., 2015). According to Nagaraj et al. (2015), it is an effective and easy method to use moist cotton balls placed in a container (Candido & Lucas, 2004;Whittemore et al., 1963). ...
... The use of a Petri dish as a water trough makes the water easily accessible to all scorpions as also reported (Nagaraj et al., 2015). According to Nagaraj et al. (2015), it is an effective and easy method to use moist cotton balls placed in a container (Candido & Lucas, 2004;Whittemore et al., 1963). Water-efficient spraying restores soil moisture content and contributes to scorpion moulting (Rubio, 2008). ...
... The stimulator used in this study was the one used by Nagaraj et al. (2015) for venom extraction and was easier to use than the one used by Lowe and Farrell (2011). The venom of A. crassicauda, H. schach and H. saulcyi was extracted by electrical stimulation (8 and 10 V). ...
Background
Scorpion stings comprise a serious problem throughout the globe, especially in regions where they are more frequent. Despite a recent upsurge of interest in scorpion venoms by various research groups, there remain many challenges.
Objective
Therefore, in this study, we aimed to study the toxicity and protein composition of venoms of Hottentotta saulcyi, Hottentotta schach and Androctonus crassicauda, three scorpion species collected in Iran.
Materials and Methods
Scorpion species were collected from Esfahan farm scorpion company and maintained in the laboratory in containers that mimic their natural habitat. Venom was extracted from A. crassicauda, H. schach and H. saulcyi by electrical stimulation of 8 and 10 V. The toxicity of each venom was established by using four groups of male Swiss albino mice aged 2 months (weighting 18–20 g) for testing each dose of venom. One group was used as a control. Venom was injected into mice by subcutaneous route. Then, animals were monitored for 24 h and LD50 was estimated by the graphic method of Miller and Tainter. Thus, high‐performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) method was used to determine amino acids in the venom, and protein concentrations were determined by the Biuret method.
Results
LD50 of scorpion venoms by subcutaneous route was found to be 1.70 mg/kg b.w (A. crassicauda), 1.47 mg/kg b.w (H. saulcyi) and 0.85 mg/kg b.w (H. schach). A. crassicauda, H. saulcyi and H. schach contain 26, 30, and 31 amino acids, respectively. A. crassicauda contains low concentrations of alpha‐aminoadipic acid, beta‐aminoisobutyric acid, beta‐alanine and citrulline. H. saulcyi contains a concentration of hydroxylysine, whereas H. schach has no such concentration. A. crassicauda also had the highest levels of tyrosine and threonine. Only A. crassicauda venom contains a low proportion of proteins (14.80%) compared with those of H. schach (16.26%) and H. saulcyi (16.20%). Albumin content in the venoms was 11.7% (H. saulcyi), 5.4% (H. schach) and 4.4% (A. crassicauda).
Conclusion
Scorpions venoms have a variable toxicity and an interesting composition in amino acids and proteins. Work on the development of anti‐venom is fundamental.
... Liebsch et al. (2020) describe how to rear N. edulis for silk production. Dehghani et al. (2016) described the handling and catching scorpions, while rearing for foodstuff is described in a Thai manual (Samnák Phim Màebaan, 2015) and Nagaraj et al. (2015) focus on keeping scorpions for venom extraction. George (2009) describes how T. grandissimum was kept on a 5×4 m piece of land in India, their nymphs parasitising local ants. ...
Like insects, arachnids (spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks) and myriapods (millipedes and centipedes) also have a history of traditional consumption, either as foodstuff or medicine. In this review, an updated list of edible arachnids and myriapods is presented, showing that these animals are consumed worldwide. They are collected from the wild, and typical processing includes heating, defanging and, in certain cases, drying and grinding. The scarce data show a marked variation in nutrient composition that depends on the taxon and even sex, possibly also instar and feeding. Evaluating these traditions in terms of food safety, tick consumption must be discouraged, and heating steps are mandatory to eliminate pathogens, venoms, and urticating setae. For the future, more research will be necessary to assess chemical risks in wild-caught animals in terms of consumer safety and to get productive arachnid and myriapod farming for foodstuffs and industrial uses (pharmaceutical substances and silks) started.
... About 100 scorpion species are found in India. The most common species causing envenomation are Hottentotta tamulus (previously known as Mesobuthos) commonly called Indian red scorpion [1,2]. Among many constituents of scorpion venom, alpha toxins produce significant human toxicity by binding to sodium channels in cell membranes, and inhibiting inactivation of action potentials [3] causing prolonged depolarization and excessive release of acetylcholine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine from autonomic ganglia. ...
Introduction
Cerebrovascular manifestations are uncommon presentations of scorpion sting in the Indian subcontinent. Encephalopathy, cerebral edema, subarachnoid hemorrhage, non-hemorrhagic strokes, and cortical necrosis are a few CNS complications described in the medical literature due to scorpion envenomation.
Case description
We report a rare case of scorpion envenomation in a 40-year old, non-hypertensive farmer, who presented in an unconscious state. Non-contrast CT head revealed intracerebral hemorrhages in left temporoparietal lobe extending into left basal ganglia with intraventricular extension.
Discussion and evaluation
Toxin-induced autonomic storm is mostly responsible for the acute hypertensive crisis in affected individuals leading to stroke (commonly cerebral infarct) as a CNS complication.
Conclusion
Basal ganglia bleed following scorpion sting is an extremely rare scenario which is usually fatal as was in our case. Early suspicion and prompt institution of treatment (prazosin) is crucial in the management of intracranial bleed secondary to scorpion sting.
... Furthermore, Hottentotta rugiscutis (Pocock, 1897), a Buthidae scorpion, is prevalent in Chirathagundu and Hindaskatte regions of Karnataka causing considerable public health problems (Nagaraj et al., 2015). However, there are no further reports on the biochemical and immunological properties of Hrv. ...
... Venom was pooled, diluted with 10 vol of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 20 min to remove the mucus. The supernatant was collected, lyophilized and stored at À20 C and dissolved in PBS for further use (Nagaraj et al., 2015). ...
... Thus, an attempt was made here for better understanding of any cross-talk between the two systems due to incitement by the Hrv, which is noteworthy. In our previous study, LD 50 of Hrv in Swiss albino mice was determined to be 3.02 mg/kg body weight via subcutaneous route (Nagaraj et al., 2015). A dose of 1 mg/per kg b.w. of crude Hrv showed no significant toxic symptoms in mice, consequently, the same dose was used in further experiments. ...
Although immunomodulatory property and many other pharmaceutical applications of scorpion venom have been addressed before, no studies were reported about its application as a neuroimmunomodulator at therapeutic dose. In this study, we conceptualized the property of scorpion venom, capable of inducing the acute pain and neurotoxicity can cause acute stress resulting in the modulation of immune cells through HPA axis. The whole venom from Hottentotta rugiscutis, a widely seen scorpion in the region of eastern Karnataka, was extracted and injected a single dose of 1 mg/kg b.w. to Swiss albino mice and then erythrocytes and leukogram were measured. Whole brain AChE activity, corticosterone, cytokines and NO levels in plasma were also evaluated at various time points. Hrv didn't show any histopathological changes in the lymphoid organs and at the site of injection. However, lymphocytes and neutrophils did get altered at 2 h post-injection. Plasma corticosterone, cytokine levels such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-10 and the AChE activity were significantly increased in a time-dependent manner. Based on these results, it may be predicted, Hrv's ability to cause acute stress resulted in the activation of HPA axis, which stimulates the release of glucocorticoid hormones which in turn elicits the immunomodulation of leukocytes by altering the levels of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Thus, we can conclude, the impact of acute stress induced by Hrv can intercommunicate the signals between neuroendocrine-immune systems.
... Several manual or electrical venom extraction methods have been already described, which are often associated with differences regarding the quality and/or quantity of venom collected (Li et al., 2013;Oukkache et al., 2013). Electrical stimulation has emerged as the preferred method for most investigators, especially for small animals (Meadows and Russell, 1970), that leads to the development of different techniques in the last 50 years. The choice of the venom extracting method is actually guided by the animal size and how easy it is to access venom glands. ...
... It is therefore important to preserve them from injury and keep them alive as far as possible. Electrical extraction methods classically involve the contraction with electrodes of specific muscles located around the venom gland (Lowe andFarrell, 2011 Garb, 2014;Nagaraj et al., 2015). It requires fine, precise and calibrated instrumentation. ...
This chapter covers important arthropods, which endanger humans either by application of poison (as do scorpions and spiders) or by injection of agents of diseases (as do ticks, mites, mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice, bugs, louse flies). In addition, vectors of agents of diseases such as vampire fish and blood licking bats are included. All 25 groups are presented under the following topics: name, geographic distribution, biology/morphology, symptoms of disease, diagnosis, pathway of infection, prophylaxis, incubation period, prepatent period, patency, chemotherapy and further reading.
