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Map of Japan and nearby countries, with enlargement of the northern part of the country (inset) showing location of Lake Towada.
Source publication
On April 21, 2008, four whooper swans were found dead at Lake Towada, Akita prefecture, Japan. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of the H5N1 subtype was isolated from specimens of the affected birds. The hemagglutinin (HA) gene of the isolate belongs to clade 2.3.2 in the HA phylogenetic tree.
Context in source publication
Context 1
... April 21, 2008, three whooper swans (2 adults and 1 juvenile) were found dead at Lake Towada, Akita Prefecture, Japan (Figure 1). Carcasses were brought into Akita Animal Hygiene Service Center for postmortem ex- aminations. One juvenile swan was also found alive but very weak. It was taken to the Wildlife Protection Center in Akita but had to be euthanized that day in moribund sta- tus. Homogenates from the tracheas, cloacas, and internal organs of 3 swans were pooled and inoculated into embryo- nated chicken eggs for virus ...
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Citations
... In Japan, the first outbreaks of influenza caused by Gs/Gd-lineage clade 2.5 H5N1 HPAIVs occurred in 2004 [6], and multiple introductions of various clades of H5Nx HPAIVs were reported [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Clade 2.3.4.4b ...
In winter 2021–2022, H5N1 and H5N8 high-pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses (HPAIVs) caused serious outbreaks in Japan: 25 outbreaks of HPAI at poultry farms and 107 cases in wild birds or in the environment. Phylogenetic analyses divided H5 HPAIVs isolated in Japan in the winter of 2021–2022 into three groups—G2a, G2b, and G2d—which were disseminated at different locations and times. Full-genome sequencing analyses of these HPAIVs revealed a strong relationship of multiple genes between Japan and Siberia, suggesting that they arose from reassortment events with avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in Siberia. The results emphasize the complex of dissemination and reassortment events with the movement of migratory birds, and the importance of continual monitoring of AIVs in Japan and Siberia for early alerts to the intrusion of HPAIVs.
... The H5N1 viruses bearing the clade 2.3.2.1 HA gene (clade 2.3.2.1 viruses) were detected in wild birds in Hong Kong in 2007 [11]. Subsequently, the virus was detected from different wild birds in Japan in 2008 [12], in Mongolia in 2009 [13], in China in 2009 [14], in Bulgaria in 2010 [15], in Korea in 2011 [16], and in the United Arab Emirates in 2014 [17]. Moreover, disease outbreaks in domestic poultry caused by the clade 2.3.2.1 viruses have been reported in Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, India, Japan, Nepal, and Vietnam, which have caused disastrous consequences for the poultry industry [18,19]. ...
H5N1 avian influenza viruses bearing the clade 2.3.2.1 hemagglutinin (HA) gene have been widely detected in birds and poultry in several countries. During our routine surveillance, we isolated 28 H5N1 viruses between January 2017 and October 2020. To investigate the genetic relationship of the globally circulating H5N1 viruses and the biological properties of those detected in China, we performed a detailed phylogenic analysis of 274 representative H5N1 strains and analyzed the antigenic properties, receptor-binding preference, and virulence in mice of the H5N1 viruses isolated in China. The phylogenic analysis indicated that the HA genes of the 274 viruses belonged to six subclades, namely clades 2.3.2.1a to 2.3.2.1f; these viruses acquired gene mutations and underwent complicated reassortment to form 58 genotypes, with G43 being the dominant genotype detected in eight Asian and African countries. The 28 H5N1 viruses detected in this study carried the HA of clade 2.3.2.1c (two strains), 2.3.2.1d (three strains), or 2.3.2.1f (23 strains), and formed eight genotypes. These viruses were antigenically well-matched with the H5-Re12 vaccine strain used in China. Animal studies showed that the pathogenicity of the H5N1 viruses ranged from non-lethal to highly lethal in mice. Moreover, the viruses exclusively bound to avian-type receptors and have not acquired the ability to bind to human-type receptors. Our study reveals the overall picture of the evolution of clade 2.3.2.1 H5N1 viruses and provides insights into the control of these viruses.
... Consistent with this finding, housing susceptible poultry species with ducks in proximity was considered as a potential risk in NE US LBMs due to characteristics of ducks as a natural AIV reservoir (Webster et al. 1992). Previous surveillance studies in East Asian LBMs also suggested the domestic duck as a major contributor to the spread and maintenance of various AIV strains (Mase et al. 2005;Wee et al. 2006;Uchida et al. 2008;Kim et al. 2010Kim et al. , 2012Sakoda et al. 2012;Lee et al. 2014;Kanehira et al. 2015;Kwon et al. 2016Kwon et al. , 2017Kwon et al. , 2020. ...
Live bird market (LBM) surveillance was conducted in the Northeast United States (US) to monitor for the presence of avian influenza viruses (AIV) in domestic poultry and market environments. A total of 384 H2N2 low pathogenicity AIV (LPAIV) isolated from active surveillance efforts in the live bird market system (LBM) of New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland during 2013-2019 were included in this analysis. Comparative phylogenetic analysis showed that a wild bird origin H2N2 virus may have been introduced into the LBMs in Pennsylvania and independently evolved since March 2012 followed by spread to LBMs in New York City during late 2012 - early 2013. LBMs in New York state played a key role in maintenance and dissemination of the virus to LBMs in the Northeast US including reverse spread to Pennsylvania LBMs. The frequent detections in the domestic ducks and market environment with viral transmissions between birds and environment possibly led to viral adaptation and circulation in domestic gallinaceous poultry in LBMs, suggesting significant roles of domestic ducks and contaminated LBM environment as reservoirs in maintenance and dissemination of H2N2 LPAIV.
... The first case of H5 HPAIVs of the Gs/Gd lineage in Japan was reported in 2004 [5]; the WHO/OIE/FAO H5N1 Evolution Working Group classified the HA gene of this isolate as belonging to clade 2.5 [6]. The HPAIVs of the Gs/Gd lineage reported in Japan in 2007, 2008, and 2010-2011 are H5N1 viruses in clades 2.2, 2.3.2, and 2.3.2.1, respectively [7][8][9]. Several times since 2014, Gs/Gd HPAIVs in clade 2.3.4.4B have been introduced into Japan [ [10][11][12][13]. ...
On 5 November 2020, a confirmed outbreak due to an H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) occurred at an egg-hen farm in Kagawa prefecture (western Japan). This virus, A/chicken/Kagawa/11C/2020 (Kagawa11C2020), was the first HPAI poultry isolate in Japan in 2020 and had multiple basic amino acids—a motif conferring high pathogenicity to chickens—at the hemagglutinin cleavage site. Mortality of chickens was 100% through intravenous inoculation tests performed according to World Organization for Animal Health criteria. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the hemagglutinin of Kagawa11C2020 belongs to clade 2.3.4.4B of the H5 Goose/Guangdong lineage and clusters with H5N8 HPAIVs isolated from wild bird feces collected in Hokkaido (Japan) and Korea in October 2020. These H5N8 HPAIVs are closely related to H5N8 HPAIVs isolated in European countries during the winter of 2019–2020. Intranasal inoculation of chickens with 106 fifty-percent egg infectious doses of Kagawa11C2020 revealed that the 50% chicken lethal dose was 104.63 and the mean time to death was 134.4 h. All infected chickens demonstrated viral shedding beginning on 2 dpi—before clinical signs were observed. These results suggest that affected chickens could transmit Kagawa11C2020 to surrounding chickens in the absence of clinical signs for several days before they died.
... Whooper swan is considered to be a highly susceptible species to HPAIVs among wild birds. The reported outbreaks of HPAIV (H5N1) infections in whooper swan once occurred in China (Chen et al., 2006) and Mongolia in 2005, Iran, Germany (Teifke et al., 2007), France, Denmark, the United Kingdom, and Mongolia in 2006, Russia in 2007, and Japan in 2008(Uchida et al., 2008. ...
The migration of wild birds plays an important role in the transmission and spread of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus, posing a severe risk to animal and human health. Substantial evidence suggests that altered gut microbial community is implicated in the infection of respiratory influenza virus. However, the influence of H5N1 infection in gut microbiota of migratory birds remains unknown. In January 2015, a novel recombinant H5N1 virus emerged and killed about 100 migratory birds, mainly including whooper swans in Sanmenxia Reservoir Area of China. Here, we describe the first fecal microbiome diversity study of H5N1-infected migratory birds. By investigating the influence of H5N1 infection on fecal bacterial communities in infected and uninfected individuals, we found that H5N1 infection shaped the gut microbiota composition by a difference in the dominance of some genera, such as Aeromonas and Lactobacillus. We also found a decreased α diversity and increased β diversity in infectious individuals. Our results highlight that increases in changes in pathogen-containing gut communities occur when individuals become infected with H5N1. Our study may provide the first evidence that there are statistical association among H5N1 presence and fecal microbiota compositional shifts, and properties of the fecal microbiota may serve as the risk of gut-linked disease in migrates with H5N1 and further aggravate the disease transmission.
... эта подгруппа разделилась на 3 части: эволюция HPAI/H5JN1/2.3.2.1в популяциях местных азиатских птиц привела к появлению подгруппы2.3.2.1.a; проникновение одного из вариантов HPAI/ H5JN/2.3.2.1вдоль Дальневосточно-Притихоокеанского миграционного русла на Дальний Восток[67](в том числе через Японию[68]) и амплификация в гнездовом ареале на северо-востоке Сибири сформировали подгруппу, названную «Дальневосточно-Южнокитайская»[9,22], или 2.3.2.1.b; проникновение другого варианта HPAI/H5JN1/2.3.2.1вдоль Джунгарского пролетного русла в Котловину Больших озер и амплификация его в гнездовом ареале на западе Монголии привели к появлению «Западномонгольской подгруппы»[5,9,22], или 2.3.2.1.c. ...
Twenty years ago in the South Chinese province of Guangdong the epizooty of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus, which has laid the foundation of the largest epizooty in the contemporary history, has flashed. Hemagglutinin of prototype A/goose/Guangdong/1/1996 (H5N1) changing many times and generating new genetic subgroups participated in various reassortations; it still exists today. The present review is devoted to the retrospective analysis of HPAI/HSN1 evolution for the lasttwenty years in the territory of Eurasia, Africa and America. The basis for the discussion is ecological model according to which new genetic variants are formed in the migration pathways with close contacts between different bird populations and in the overwintering areas where the maximum values of the immune layer occur; amplification of virus variants occurs in nesting areas among juvenile populations. The updated system of designations of genetic groups introduced by WHO/OIE/FAO H5 Evolution Working Group in 2015 is used.
... Influenza A viruses originate from non-pathogenic viruses that are circulating in migratory water birds of order Anseriformes and Charadriformes, especially in ducks, and their nesting lake water (Webster et al., 1992;Uchida et al., 2008). Therefore role of duck species is crucial to maintain the genetic pool of these low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIs) by asymptomatic infections (Munster et al., 2006). ...
The Live bird Markets (LBM) can serve as a paramount source of AIV infections.
During routine Avian Influenza surveillance in Pakistan, low-pathogenic avian
influenza virus subtype H4N6 was isolated first time from Khaki Campbell duck
(Anas platyrhynchos) during 2010 and from broiler chicken during 2011 in the live
bird markets (LBMs) from the port city of Karachi in Sindh province. Whole
genome sequencing revealed introduction of a new reassortant Eurasian avian virus
strain. Phylogenetically HA, NA, M, NP and PB2 genes clustered mostly with
Russian strains of influenza viruses and PA gene with AI isolates from Netherlands,
whereas NS and PB1 genes clustered with a Pakistani isolate of H3N1. Sequence
analysis revealed a LP amino acid motif (PEKASR), avian-like receptors,
conservation of amino acids at the receptor binding sites and the amino acids known
to be associated with sensitivities to antiviral drugs, loss of glycosylation site in NA
gene and attainment of unique PDZ domain motif (ESEI) at the C terminal of NS
gene. The seroconversion against H4N6 subtype was observed mostly in the bird
populations of Sindh and Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa provinces. The isolation
divulged the role of LBM where mingling of different bird species provides an
excellent environment for dissemination and potential reassortment of AIV.
Moreover, various point mutations in these H4N6 isolates and close relationship
with Pakistani H3N1 and other Eurasian strains also reflect prevailing diversity
among AIVs circulating in the local LBMs.
... Even though the Asian HPAI H5 virus has been enzootic in Mainland China for almost two decades, it was previously only detected in Taiwan, 130 km away across the Taiwan Strait, from smuggled birds (Lee et al., 2007). The lower pathogenicity of Buan2-like H5 viruses in wild birds may facilitate their long-distance dissemination, as both clade 2.2 and 2.3.2.1 viruses had caused outbreaks in Korea and Japan (Lee et al., 2008;Uchida et al., 2008) but were never detected in Taiwan. Reassortment of Buan2-like H5 viruses with gene pool viruses has only been observed in North America and Taiwan. ...
... These viruses were isolated from past Japanese outbreaks. 44 The stock virus was propagated for 2 days in the allantoic cavity of 10-dayold embryonated chicken eggs at 37 C. Fresh infectious allantoic fluid was harvested and stored at À80 C until use. The inoculum was prepared by diluting the infectious allantoic fluid in phosphate-buffered saline on the day of inoculation. ...
Domestic ducks can be a key factor in the regional spread of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus in Asia. The authors performed experimental infections to examine the relationship between corneal opacity and H5N1 HPAI virus infection in domestic ducks (Anas platyrhyncha var domestica). A total of 99 domestic ducks, including 3 control birds, were used in the study. In experiment 1, when domestic ducks were inoculated intranasally with 2 H5N1 HPAI viruses, corneal opacity appeared more frequently than neurologic signs and mortality. Corneal ulceration and exophthalmos were rare findings. Histopathologic examinations of the eyes of domestic ducks in experiment 2 revealed that corneal opacity was due to the loss of corneal endothelial cells and subsequent keratitis with edema. Influenza viral antigen was detected in corneal endothelial cells and some other ocular cells by immunohistochemistry. Results suggest that corneal opacity is a characteristic and frequent finding in domestic ducks infected with the H5N1 HPAI virus. Confirming this ocular change may improve the detection rate of infected domestic ducks in the field.
© The Author(s) 2015.
... The variant of clade 2.3.2 was first isolated in Hong Kong SAR and mainland China in 2007 [11,12]. It has since circulated widely in poultry in China and caused a new wave of cross-continental infection, spreading from Asia to Europe [13][14][15]. Antigenic analysis revealed that the clade 2.3.2 viruses reacted weakly with antisera prepared from the Re-4 and Re-5 vaccines widely used in China [10]. ...
Vaccination for highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has been implemented in China for a decade, however, the virus is still present in poultry. A series of recombinant vaccines, Re-1 to Re-7, have been developed and used, and Re-8 will also be used in clinical settings to prevent the prevailing flu strains. The question remains, when can China eradicate the disease? Here, we review the epidemiology of H5 HPAI along with the development, usage and problems of vaccines. Further suggestions for controlling the disease in China are provided.
