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Map of Barbados. Locations of artificial reef and natural reef diving sites and diving schools. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068899.g001
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Artificial reefs are increasingly used worldwide as a method for managing recreational diving since they have the potential to satisfy both conservation goals and economic interests. In order to help maximize their utility, further information is needed to drive the design of stimulating resources for scuba divers. We used a questionnaire survey to...
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Context 1
... diving is a burgeoning global activity with coral reefs being a major attraction to divers. As a niche market, recreational diving is widely acknowledged as being one of the tourism industry’s fastest growing markets [1–3], and as a consequence, many countries are establishing themselves as new international diving destinations. Coral reefs provide a diverse and stimulating setting for recreational diving, as well as other marine based activities. However, their ubiquitous appeal to the diving tourism industry has led to concerns of significant levels of biological damage resulting from the practice. Many studies have docu- mented diver impacts [4–8], with levels of damage to reefs often linked to intensity of use by divers [9–11] and to a lack of diving experience [12–14]. Studies report; mechanical breakage [14–16] and the re-suspension of sediments [11,16,17] as problems. Although there are negative impacts associated with mass diving tourism, scuba diving has the potential to generate substantial revenues [18–22]. However, balancing the requirements of reef conservation with the needs of local host economies represents a considerable challenge to managers and policy makers. Various approaches to manage coral reef diving sites have emerged over the previous 20 years, such as the percentile approach and limits of acceptable change [23], and the concept of ecological carrying capacity (e.g. [24,25]). A drawback of these policies though, is that they may require ongoing monitoring and adjustments [26], and are more effective when applied within a marine park setting. Even within marine protected areas, active management is often lacking [27–30]. Artificial reefs could provide an alternative more unconventional method to assist in the management of scuba diving impacts. Whilst artificial reefs are not viewed as ‘perfect’ substitutes for natural coral reefs [20], there is evidence that they are valued by scuba divers [31–33] with many structures used successfully as sacrificial dive sites worldwide [34–37]. Of significance, artificial reefs have been shown to alleviate user pressure to nearby natural reef habitats [34,35], and to contribute substantially to local host economies [18–20,34]. In view of the fact that some scuba divers place little importance on the ecological characteristics of a reef site [38,39], it may be possible to satisfy divers’ requirements with well conceived artificial reef diving attractions. However, studies relating to issues concerned with the recreational use of artificial habitats by divers, have received scant attention to date. The few relevant published studies [32,33,40–43] and principal findings are presented in Table 1. A majority of these works sought to gain a personal insight from divers into their motivations and perceptions of diving on artificial reefs, but none investigated resource substitution behaviour among divers. The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of diving on artificial reefs from a user perspective. Information was sought to characterize both resident and visitor scuba divers, to acquire an understanding of why individuals dive on artificial reefs, and the factors that inform their choice of dive site. We report on divers use, opinions, and preferences related to artificial reefs, including the environmental attributes and motivational factors that contribute to diver enjoyment. We also explore if reef habitat preference is influenced by diving experience. Our results are discussed within the context of scuba diving management where reef conservation is important. All divers completed the survey themselves and gave their permission to use the results. Individuals were not identifiable from the data provided. The work described in this paper was reviewed and approved by the Centre for Environmental and Marine Science departmental ethics committee. Verbal assurance was provided by a representative of the Barbadian Coastal Zone Management Unit that no permit is required to conduct questionnaire based research on the island. The study was conducted on the Caribbean island of Barbados (13 u 10 9 N, 59 u 35 9 W), West Indies (Figure 1), between December 2010 to January 2012. Whilst Barbados is a relatively small island (431 km 2 ), its current population of 276,300 [44] makes it one of the most densely populated islands in the Caribbean [45]. Along the protected western side of the island are complexes of fringing, patch, and bank reefs that nourish the white sand beaches [46]. These characteristics form the basis of the island’s tourism appeal [47] alongside warm tropical temperatures and clear marine waters. To complement the natural reefs, several artificial reefs consisting of shipwrecks and of Reef Balls TM (www.reefballs.org) have been gradually deployed along the south-west coast (Figure 1). Barbados has an extensive collection of wrecks [48], at various stages of maturity, six of which are situated in a dedicated marine park in Carlisle Bay. These factors, together with a diverse diving clientele [21] and the proactive attitude of the Barbados government towards artificial reefs [49], made this island an ideal site to conduct a study of the interactions of diving tourism and artificial reefs. Data was collected from a 36 question, self-administered survey (in English only), using a combination of open-ended and closed questions. The questionnaire was designed to profile the diving clientele of Barbados, report on their artificial reef awareness and use, their satisfaction of artificial reef diving, and their habitat preferences. A series of Likert scales (5–point) and checklists were included in the survey design alongside 8 free-response questions that gave individuals an opportunity to express their own thoughts and feelings to a prior response. Specific questions included in the survey reflect previous works that have studied diver perceptions of artificial reefs [32,40,42]. To assist participants; a map of Barbados was provided that included a list of all artificial reef and natural reef diving sites and locations of diving schools situated along the south-west coast of the island. Respondents were given the opportunity at the conclusion of the survey to add any additional information they thought necessary/beneficial to the study. Prior to the main survey, the questionnaire was tested as a pilot survey ( n = 10) aided by a survey assessment sheet that resulted in minor modifications to several of the questions. Sampling was conducted with the assistance of five of the diving companies situated along the south-west coast of Barbados (Figure 1). A twelve month survey period enabled us to capture one high season (November to May) and one low season (June to October). Selection of survey participants was randomized, based on every other individual entering a dive shop with the a priori requirement of $ 10 logged dives and knowledge of local artificial reef diving. The rationale of the study was made clear to all participants prior to completion of the questionnaire. Two hundred questionnaires were fully completed within the study period. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 19) software was used to analyze relevant questionnaire data. For this study and consistent with the methodology of Fitzsimmons [39], a distinction was made between the experience level of divers; novice ( , 100 logged dives) and experienced ( $ 100 logged dives). Mean scores for factors such as age and length of diving career, were calculated. To assess the importance of artificial reef attributes presented in the survey, ranked lists of mean values were produced for both novice and experienced divers. We applied Chi- square tests (with Yate’s Continuity Corrections) to categorical variables to detect differences in responses to specific questions (i.e. dichotomous choice questions) and to attitude statements. We examined the relationship of responses to specific questions between diver experience categories and between genders. Content analysis was employed to analyze dominant themes relating to qualitative data. Significant contributions were extracted and presented within the discussion. As our data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test), non-parametric statistical tests were applied. The non-parametric Kruskal- Wallis Test was used to compare diver experience in relation to artificial reef satisfaction scores. Additionally, a Mann-Whitney U Test was employed to analyze for differences relating to experience of divers and to reef habitat preference. Of the 200 divers surveyed, the sample included more men (60.5%) than women. Collectively respondents averaged 43 years of age ( 6 13.4 s.d.), ranging from 12 to 71 years. Fifty percent of those surveyed were British, 24.5% American, 15.5% Canadian, and 6.5% resided in Barbados. The remaining 3.5% of respondents were represented by three countries; Germany, Australia, and Bulgaria. The higher numbers of visitors from the United Kingdom and the United States are consistent with figures reported in a study conducted on Barbados [50] and with arrival data reported for the island generally [51]. With regard to the length of stay for non-resident respondents, the majority (43%) were visiting Barbados for 7–10 days duration followed by individuals staying for 14 days (24.5%). Cruise/day- trippers visiting the island accounted for 2.5% of those surveyed. For non-residents, the main reasons given for visiting Barbados were for either a general holiday (50%), or for a dedicated diving holiday (39%). A minority were visiting for the purpose of work or business (3%) or to visit friends or relatives (3%). Content analysis revealed the ‘other’ category (5%) mainly consisted of honeymooning couples (4%) or individuals on a golfing ...
Context 2
... for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 19) software was used to analyze relevant questionnaire data. For this study and consistent with the methodology of Fitzsimmons [39], a distinction was made between the experience level of divers; novice ( , 100 logged dives) and experienced ( $ 100 logged dives). Mean scores for factors such as age and length of diving career, were calculated. To assess the importance of artificial reef attributes presented in the survey, ranked lists of mean values were produced for both novice and experienced divers. We applied Chi- square tests (with Yate’s Continuity Corrections) to categorical variables to detect differences in responses to specific questions (i.e. dichotomous choice questions) and to attitude statements. We examined the relationship of responses to specific questions between diver experience categories and between genders. Content analysis was employed to analyze dominant themes relating to qualitative data. Significant contributions were extracted and presented within the discussion. As our data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test), non-parametric statistical tests were applied. The non-parametric Kruskal- Wallis Test was used to compare diver experience in relation to artificial reef satisfaction scores. Additionally, a Mann-Whitney U Test was employed to analyze for differences relating to experience of divers and to reef habitat preference. Of the 200 divers surveyed, the sample included more men (60.5%) than women. Collectively respondents averaged 43 years of age ( 6 13.4 s.d.), ranging from 12 to 71 years. Fifty percent of those surveyed were British, 24.5% American, 15.5% Canadian, and 6.5% resided in Barbados. The remaining 3.5% of respondents were represented by three countries; Germany, Australia, and Bulgaria. The higher numbers of visitors from the United Kingdom and the United States are consistent with figures reported in a study conducted on Barbados [50] and with arrival data reported for the island generally [51]. With regard to the length of stay for non-resident respondents, the majority (43%) were visiting Barbados for 7–10 days duration followed by individuals staying for 14 days (24.5%). Cruise/day- trippers visiting the island accounted for 2.5% of those surveyed. For non-residents, the main reasons given for visiting Barbados were for either a general holiday (50%), or for a dedicated diving holiday (39%). A minority were visiting for the purpose of work or business (3%) or to visit friends or relatives (3%). Content analysis revealed the ‘other’ category (5%) mainly consisted of honeymooning couples (4%) or individuals on a golfing holiday (1%). The diving experience of respondents was highly variable. A break down of diving qualifications held revealed that 66.5% possessed Open Water certification (basic and advanced level, CMAS*), followed by 27% of divers with Sport or Dive Master qualifications (CMAS***). The remaining participants were either Instructors (5.5%) or trainee divers (1%). To further assess each respondent’s level of diving experience, individuals were questioned on the number of dives they had logged. Respondents had logged an average of 190 ( 6 264 s.d.) dives to date. Moreover, the study revealed novices, i.e. , 100 logged dives, accounted for 52% of the sample (104 individuals), compared to 48% being experienced divers (96 individuals), with $ 100 dives logged. Five percent of participants (10 individuals) had logged 1000 dives or more in their diving history. An assessment of commitment to diving indicated a mean career length of 10.75 ( 6 9.6 s.d.) years. One individual had been diving for 45 years on both reef types. A number of exploratory questions were presented to participants to assess their awareness, use, and a priori knowledge of artificial reefs. Most divers (96%) had heard of the term ‘artificial reef’. As a reflection of this, 95% of respondents reported having previously dived on what they considered artificial habitat, whilst all 200 respondents had dived on artificial reefs in Barbados at some point. Divers were questioned on whether their decision to visit the island was influenced by established artificial reefs such as the group of six wrecks situated within Carlisle Bay. Twenty percent of individuals were found to be influenced by these reefs, and as such had chosen to visit the Caribbean island. When participants were asked if they had dived on these wrecks, 76% had done so. Respondents were also asked to state their most favoured type of artificial reef structure. From a list of 9 structures; 76.5% selected shipwrecks and 15.5% sunken vessels as their most preferred type. Figure 2 shows the least favoured structures consisted of rubber tyres (0%) and concrete domed modules (Reef Balls TM ) (0%). Despite the latter material receiving no support from divers, 12% of respondents had in fact dived on the conglomerate of Reef Balls TM deployed off the coastal area of Bridgetown (Figure 1). Divers were also asked to state their preferred depth at which to dive on artificial habitat. A majority (82%) selected having a preference for diving at less than 21 meters with only 2% of divers indicating a depth of more than 30 meters. The most favoured category was between 15–18 meters (38% of respondents). Analysis of responses to rate level of satisfaction (on a Likert scale of 1 to 5) to the experience of artificial reef diving in Barbados, revealed 90% of divers being either very satisfied (54%) or satisfied (36%) with the experience, while none reported being ‘very dissatisfied’. An exploratory analysis was conducted to assess any relationship between diver experience and level of satisfaction according to the number of dives respondents had logged (Figure 3). A Kruskal-Wallis Test indicated a high level of association between diver experience and level of satisfaction relating to artificial reef diving ( x 2 (3) = 23.90, p # 0.001) (Figure 3). This indicates that less experienced divers with fewer dives are significantly different from the experienced divers in rating their satisfaction. Post hoc analysis confirmed significant differences occurring between ‘very satisfied’ responses ( x 2 (1) = 5.38, p # 0.020), and ‘neither satisfied nor dissatisfied’ responses ( x 2 (1) = 6.67, p # 0.001), between novice and experienced divers. It appears therefore with increasing diving experience, level of satisfaction with artificial reefs as diving sites, decreases. Con- versely, novice divers experience greater satisfaction with artificial reef diving. Analysis conducted to assess differences in diver satisfaction suggested no significant differences between males and females ( x 2 (3) = 5.99, p $ 0.112, phi = 0.174). The next set of questions explored the level of importance of 13 artificial reef attributes that divers considered would enhance their diving enjoyment and satisfaction. Mean scores and overall ranking of reef attributes are presented in Table 2 for novice and experienced divers. Regardless of experience levels, respondents appear to derive a similar level of satisfaction from each of the attributes listed in Table 2. Ranked in the top six attributes for both diver groups are fish abundance, sea visibility, coral cover, safety, and reef colours. Fish abundance was significantly more highly ranked than reef complexity or reef size ( p # 0.004 and p # 0.001, respectively). However, closer inspection of mean scores highlighted differences in ‘groups of attributes’ between levels of diver experience. For example, experienced divers placed greater importance on biological attributes including coral cover, reef colours, and reef complexity; whereas novices derived greater satisfaction from environmental attributes such as reef depth, location and access of reef, and sea visibility. Whist these latter results are not of statistical significance, further research to examine specific artificial reef attributes and their levels of importance to novice divers and experienced divers would be worthwhile. Respondents were presented with 8 attitude statements relating to artificial reefs that broadly addressed a number of ecological based themes. Table 3 presents each statement in rank order of divers’ agreement or disagreement. A majority concurred strongly with all five positively worded statements. The highest level of agreement provided was for the statement ‘artificial reefs provide new habitats for marine organisms’ with 93% of divers either agreeing (37%) or strongly agreeing (56%). Strong agreement was also recorded for the statement ‘artificial reefs take diver pressure off natural reefs’ with 81% either agreeing or strongly agreeing. As a reef management strategy, employing artificial reefs as alternative dive sites thus appears to have some resonance amongst divers surveyed in Barbados, as it has had elsewhere [32]. It appeared that many respondents considered ‘diving on an established artificial reef’ of no special interest compared to diving on a new artificial reef, with only 64.5% either strongly agreeing or agreeing, and a further 30.5% being ambivalent towards this statement. The neutral responses recorded may suggest that new, un-established artificial reefs are sufficiently attractive to some divers. There was a high level of disagreement (85.5%) towards the negatively worded statement ‘artificial reefs are a form of marine visual pollution’. When divers were examined on their attitude towards the statement ‘there are currently too many artificial reef dive sites in Barbados’, only a handful (4.5%) chose to agree with this statement. For the final stage of the questionnaire, opinions and preferences relating to artificial reefs were sought in comparison to diving on natural reefs. Respondents were questioned on ‘whether they perceived artificial reef diving to be a nature-based experience, or not’. A high level of agreement (86%) was given in support of this question, which ...
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... diving is a burgeoning global activity with coral reefs being a major attraction to divers. As a niche market, recreational diving is widely acknowledged as being one of the tourism industry’s fastest growing markets [1–3], and as a consequence, many countries are establishing themselves as new international diving destinations. Coral reefs provide a diverse and stimulating setting for recreational diving, as well as other marine based activities. However, their ubiquitous appeal to the diving tourism industry has led to concerns of significant levels of biological damage resulting from the practice. Many studies have docu- mented diver impacts [4–8], with levels of damage to reefs often linked to intensity of use by divers [9–11] and to a lack of diving experience [12–14]. Studies report; mechanical breakage [14–16] and the re-suspension of sediments [11,16,17] as problems. Although there are negative impacts associated with mass diving tourism, scuba diving has the potential to generate substantial revenues [18–22]. However, balancing the requirements of reef conservation with the needs of local host economies represents a considerable challenge to managers and policy makers. Various approaches to manage coral reef diving sites have emerged over the previous 20 years, such as the percentile approach and limits of acceptable change [23], and the concept of ecological carrying capacity (e.g. [24,25]). A drawback of these policies though, is that they may require ongoing monitoring and adjustments [26], and are more effective when applied within a marine park setting. Even within marine protected areas, active management is often lacking [27–30]. Artificial reefs could provide an alternative more unconventional method to assist in the management of scuba diving impacts. Whilst artificial reefs are not viewed as ‘perfect’ substitutes for natural coral reefs [20], there is evidence that they are valued by scuba divers [31–33] with many structures used successfully as sacrificial dive sites worldwide [34–37]. Of significance, artificial reefs have been shown to alleviate user pressure to nearby natural reef habitats [34,35], and to contribute substantially to local host economies [18–20,34]. In view of the fact that some scuba divers place little importance on the ecological characteristics of a reef site [38,39], it may be possible to satisfy divers’ requirements with well conceived artificial reef diving attractions. However, studies relating to issues concerned with the recreational use of artificial habitats by divers, have received scant attention to date. The few relevant published studies [32,33,40–43] and principal findings are presented in Table 1. A majority of these works sought to gain a personal insight from divers into their motivations and perceptions of diving on artificial reefs, but none investigated resource substitution behaviour among divers. The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of diving on artificial reefs from a user perspective. Information was sought to characterize both resident and visitor scuba divers, to acquire an understanding of why individuals dive on artificial reefs, and the factors that inform their choice of dive site. We report on divers use, opinions, and preferences related to artificial reefs, including the environmental attributes and motivational factors that contribute to diver enjoyment. We also explore if reef habitat preference is influenced by diving experience. Our results are discussed within the context of scuba diving management where reef conservation is important. All divers completed the survey themselves and gave their permission to use the results. Individuals were not identifiable from the data provided. The work described in this paper was reviewed and approved by the Centre for Environmental and Marine Science departmental ethics committee. Verbal assurance was provided by a representative of the Barbadian Coastal Zone Management Unit that no permit is required to conduct questionnaire based research on the island. The study was conducted on the Caribbean island of Barbados (13 u 10 9 N, 59 u 35 9 W), West Indies (Figure 1), between December 2010 to January 2012. Whilst Barbados is a relatively small island (431 km 2 ), its current population of 276,300 [44] makes it one of the most densely populated islands in the Caribbean [45]. Along the protected western side of the island are complexes of fringing, patch, and bank reefs that nourish the white sand beaches [46]. These characteristics form the basis of the island’s tourism appeal [47] alongside warm tropical temperatures and clear marine waters. To complement the natural reefs, several artificial reefs consisting of shipwrecks and of Reef Balls TM (www.reefballs.org) have been gradually deployed along the south-west coast (Figure 1). Barbados has an extensive collection of wrecks [48], at various stages of maturity, six of which are situated in a dedicated marine park in Carlisle Bay. These factors, together with a diverse diving clientele [21] and the proactive attitude of the Barbados government towards artificial reefs [49], made this island an ideal site to conduct a study of the interactions of diving tourism and artificial reefs. Data was collected from a 36 question, self-administered survey (in English only), using a combination of open-ended and closed questions. The questionnaire was designed to profile the diving clientele of Barbados, report on their artificial reef awareness and use, their satisfaction of artificial reef diving, and their habitat preferences. A series of Likert scales (5–point) and checklists were included in the survey design alongside 8 free-response questions that gave individuals an opportunity to express their own thoughts and feelings to a prior response. Specific questions included in the survey reflect previous works that have studied diver perceptions of artificial reefs [32,40,42]. To assist participants; a map of Barbados was provided that included a list of all artificial reef and natural reef diving sites and locations of diving schools situated along the south-west coast of the island. Respondents were given the opportunity at the conclusion of the survey to add any additional information they thought necessary/beneficial to the study. Prior to the main survey, the questionnaire was tested as a pilot survey ( n = 10) aided by a survey assessment sheet that resulted in minor modifications to several of the questions. Sampling was conducted with the assistance of five of the diving companies situated along the south-west coast of Barbados (Figure 1). A twelve month survey period enabled us to capture one high season (November to May) and one low season (June to October). Selection of survey participants was randomized, based on every other individual entering a dive shop with the a priori requirement of $ 10 logged dives and knowledge of local artificial reef diving. The rationale of the study was made clear to all participants prior to completion of the questionnaire. Two hundred questionnaires were fully completed within the study period. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 19) software was used to analyze relevant questionnaire data. For this study and consistent with the methodology of Fitzsimmons [39], a distinction was made between the experience level of divers; novice ( , 100 logged dives) and experienced ( $ 100 logged dives). Mean scores for factors such as age and length of diving career, were calculated. To assess the importance of artificial reef attributes presented in the survey, ranked lists of mean values were produced for both novice and experienced divers. We applied Chi- square tests (with Yate’s Continuity Corrections) to categorical variables to detect differences in responses to specific questions (i.e. dichotomous choice questions) and to attitude statements. We examined the relationship of responses to specific questions between diver experience categories and between genders. Content analysis was employed to analyze dominant themes relating to qualitative data. Significant contributions were extracted and presented within the discussion. As our data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test), non-parametric statistical tests were applied. The non-parametric Kruskal- Wallis Test was used to compare diver experience in relation to artificial reef satisfaction scores. Additionally, a Mann-Whitney U Test was employed to analyze for differences relating to experience of divers and to reef habitat preference. Of the 200 divers surveyed, the sample included more men (60.5%) than women. Collectively respondents averaged 43 years of age ( 6 13.4 s.d.), ranging from 12 to 71 years. Fifty percent of those surveyed were British, 24.5% American, 15.5% Canadian, and 6.5% resided in Barbados. The remaining 3.5% of respondents were represented by three countries; Germany, Australia, and Bulgaria. The higher numbers of visitors from the United Kingdom and the United States are consistent with figures reported in a study conducted on Barbados [50] and with arrival data ...
Context 4
... management is often lacking [27–30]. Artificial reefs could provide an alternative more unconventional method to assist in the management of scuba diving impacts. Whilst artificial reefs are not viewed as ‘perfect’ substitutes for natural coral reefs [20], there is evidence that they are valued by scuba divers [31–33] with many structures used successfully as sacrificial dive sites worldwide [34–37]. Of significance, artificial reefs have been shown to alleviate user pressure to nearby natural reef habitats [34,35], and to contribute substantially to local host economies [18–20,34]. In view of the fact that some scuba divers place little importance on the ecological characteristics of a reef site [38,39], it may be possible to satisfy divers’ requirements with well conceived artificial reef diving attractions. However, studies relating to issues concerned with the recreational use of artificial habitats by divers, have received scant attention to date. The few relevant published studies [32,33,40–43] and principal findings are presented in Table 1. A majority of these works sought to gain a personal insight from divers into their motivations and perceptions of diving on artificial reefs, but none investigated resource substitution behaviour among divers. The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of diving on artificial reefs from a user perspective. Information was sought to characterize both resident and visitor scuba divers, to acquire an understanding of why individuals dive on artificial reefs, and the factors that inform their choice of dive site. We report on divers use, opinions, and preferences related to artificial reefs, including the environmental attributes and motivational factors that contribute to diver enjoyment. We also explore if reef habitat preference is influenced by diving experience. Our results are discussed within the context of scuba diving management where reef conservation is important. All divers completed the survey themselves and gave their permission to use the results. Individuals were not identifiable from the data provided. The work described in this paper was reviewed and approved by the Centre for Environmental and Marine Science departmental ethics committee. Verbal assurance was provided by a representative of the Barbadian Coastal Zone Management Unit that no permit is required to conduct questionnaire based research on the island. The study was conducted on the Caribbean island of Barbados (13 u 10 9 N, 59 u 35 9 W), West Indies (Figure 1), between December 2010 to January 2012. Whilst Barbados is a relatively small island (431 km 2 ), its current population of 276,300 [44] makes it one of the most densely populated islands in the Caribbean [45]. Along the protected western side of the island are complexes of fringing, patch, and bank reefs that nourish the white sand beaches [46]. These characteristics form the basis of the island’s tourism appeal [47] alongside warm tropical temperatures and clear marine waters. To complement the natural reefs, several artificial reefs consisting of shipwrecks and of Reef Balls TM (www.reefballs.org) have been gradually deployed along the south-west coast (Figure 1). Barbados has an extensive collection of wrecks [48], at various stages of maturity, six of which are situated in a dedicated marine park in Carlisle Bay. These factors, together with a diverse diving clientele [21] and the proactive attitude of the Barbados government towards artificial reefs [49], made this island an ideal site to conduct a study of the interactions of diving tourism and artificial reefs. Data was collected from a 36 question, self-administered survey (in English only), using a combination of open-ended and closed questions. The questionnaire was designed to profile the diving clientele of Barbados, report on their artificial reef awareness and use, their satisfaction of artificial reef diving, and their habitat preferences. A series of Likert scales (5–point) and checklists were included in the survey design alongside 8 free-response questions that gave individuals an opportunity to express their own thoughts and feelings to a prior response. Specific questions included in the survey reflect previous works that have studied diver perceptions of artificial reefs [32,40,42]. To assist participants; a map of Barbados was provided that included a list of all artificial reef and natural reef diving sites and locations of diving schools situated along the south-west coast of the island. Respondents were given the opportunity at the conclusion of the survey to add any additional information they thought necessary/beneficial to the study. Prior to the main survey, the questionnaire was tested as a pilot survey ( n = 10) aided by a survey assessment sheet that resulted in minor modifications to several of the questions. Sampling was conducted with the assistance of five of the diving companies situated along the south-west coast of Barbados (Figure 1). A twelve month survey period enabled us to capture one high season (November to May) and one low season (June to October). Selection of survey participants was randomized, based on every other individual entering a dive shop with the a priori requirement of $ 10 logged dives and knowledge of local artificial reef diving. The rationale of the study was made clear to all participants prior to completion of the questionnaire. Two hundred questionnaires were fully completed within the study period. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 19) software was used to analyze relevant questionnaire data. For this study and consistent with the methodology of Fitzsimmons [39], a distinction was made between the experience level of divers; novice ( , 100 logged dives) and experienced ( $ 100 logged dives). Mean scores for factors such as age and length of diving career, were calculated. To assess the importance of artificial reef attributes presented in the survey, ranked lists of mean values were produced for both novice and experienced divers. We applied Chi- square tests (with Yate’s Continuity Corrections) to categorical variables to detect differences in responses to specific questions (i.e. dichotomous choice questions) and to attitude statements. We examined the relationship of responses to specific questions between diver experience categories and between genders. Content analysis was employed to analyze dominant themes relating to qualitative data. Significant contributions were extracted and presented within the discussion. As our data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test), non-parametric statistical tests were applied. The non-parametric Kruskal- Wallis Test was used to compare diver experience in relation to artificial reef satisfaction scores. Additionally, a Mann-Whitney U Test was employed to analyze for differences relating to experience of divers and to reef habitat preference. Of the 200 divers surveyed, the sample included more men (60.5%) than women. Collectively respondents averaged 43 years of age ( 6 13.4 s.d.), ranging from 12 to 71 years. Fifty percent of those surveyed were British, 24.5% American, 15.5% Canadian, and 6.5% resided in Barbados. The remaining 3.5% of respondents were represented by three countries; Germany, Australia, and Bulgaria. The higher numbers of visitors from the United Kingdom and the United States are consistent with figures reported in a study conducted on Barbados [50] and with arrival data reported for the island generally [51]. With regard to the length of stay for non-resident respondents, the majority (43%) were visiting Barbados for 7–10 days duration followed by individuals staying for 14 days (24.5%). Cruise/day- trippers visiting the island accounted for 2.5% of those surveyed. For non-residents, the main reasons given for visiting Barbados were for either a general holiday (50%), or for a dedicated diving holiday (39%). A minority were visiting for the purpose of work or business (3%) or to visit friends or relatives (3%). Content analysis revealed the ‘other’ category (5%) mainly consisted of honeymooning couples (4%) or individuals on a golfing holiday (1%). The diving experience of respondents was highly variable. A break down of diving qualifications held revealed that 66.5% possessed Open Water certification (basic and advanced level, CMAS*), followed by 27% of divers with Sport or Dive Master qualifications (CMAS***). The remaining participants were either Instructors (5.5%) or trainee divers (1%). To further assess each respondent’s level of diving experience, individuals were questioned on the number of dives they had logged. Respondents had logged an average of 190 ( 6 264 s.d.) dives to date. Moreover, the study revealed novices, i.e. , 100 logged dives, accounted for 52% of the sample (104 individuals), compared to 48% being experienced divers (96 individuals), with $ 100 dives logged. Five percent of participants (10 individuals) had logged 1000 dives or more in their diving history. An assessment of commitment to diving indicated a mean career length of 10.75 ( 6 9.6 s.d.) years. One individual had been diving for 45 years on both reef types. A number of exploratory questions were presented to participants to assess their awareness, use, and a priori knowledge of artificial reefs. Most divers (96%) had heard of the term ‘artificial reef’. As a reflection of this, 95% of respondents reported having previously dived on what they considered artificial habitat, whilst all 200 respondents had dived on artificial reefs in Barbados at some point. Divers were questioned on whether their decision to visit the island was influenced by established artificial reefs such as the group of six wrecks situated within Carlisle Bay. Twenty percent of individuals were found to be influenced by these reefs, and as such had chosen to visit the Caribbean island. When participants were asked if they had dived on ...
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Citations
... Several studies have demonstrated that scuba divers are willing to embrace artificial reefs as diving destinations, even in regions abundant with natural coral reefs [24][25][26]. In fact, many dive clubs and resorts create their own artificial reef to serve as an attraction and offer an additional diving adventure. ...
... Artificial reefs are deployed for a wide range of purposes, including fisheries improvement, ecological restoration of marine habitats, coastal protection, and scientific research [25,26]. Further, many of the most attractive dive sites are ships and warplanes that were sunk during wars, accidents, and the like. ...
... In conclusion, long-term studies emerge once again as crucial components in shaping sustainable marine conservation strategies. The establishment of well-designed artificial reefs (ARs) serves as an effective means to divert human pressure, particularly guided divers, away from natural coral reefs, thereby aiding in the preservation of these vulnerable ecosystems [25,[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]. The emphasis on meticulous design becomes imperative, ensuring that ARs remain not only visually appealing but also biologically vibrant over extended periods. ...
Artificial reefs have been suggested as alternative dive sites to mitigate human pressure on natural reefs. Despite the conceptual appeal of artificial reefs, there is a paucity of empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness in achieving this objective. Here, we report that a small artificial reef deployed adjacent to a local coral marine protected area caused a shift in the routes taken by introductory dives and nearly eliminated their visitations to the natural fringing reef within the MPA. This behavioral shift among divers persisted for more than a decade following the AR deployment. These findings underscore the efficacy of well-designed and appropriately located artificial reefs as valuable instruments in the conservation of coral reefs.
... Although scholars have conducted studies on resource management [9,10], destination marketing [11,12], and expectations [13][14][15] to understand divers' preferences, very little literature has explored nature-based scuba diving preferences in Hong Kong and in the Chinese community. Moreover, previous literature concerning divers' diving preferences has relied heavily on psychological criteria such as perception [16][17][18], motivation [19][20][21], and conservation attitude [22,23]. In contrast, divers' sociodemographic status and diving experiences as critical internal factors have been overlooked or rarely explored [16]. ...
... Comparatively, muck divers prefer dive sites with a high concentration of blue-ringed octopus, flamboyant cuttlefish, and frogfish [48]. In addition to biological preferences, weather conditions, underwater visibility, popularity, surface condition, entry points, water quality, litter pollution, and divers' density have been recognized as critical environmental attributes for divers' site preferences [8,17,18,[49][50][51]. However, the fact remains that scuba divers are not a homogeneous group, and divers' preferences might differ across individuals [16,17]. ...
... In addition to biological preferences, weather conditions, underwater visibility, popularity, surface condition, entry points, water quality, litter pollution, and divers' density have been recognized as critical environmental attributes for divers' site preferences [8,17,18,[49][50][51]. However, the fact remains that scuba divers are not a homogeneous group, and divers' preferences might differ across individuals [16,17]. For instance, Meisel-Lusby and Cottrell [13] found significant differences in predicting the diving preferences of Scouts versus regular US divers in youth adventure programmes. ...
Understanding the preferences of scuba divers is crucial for authorities to establish appropriate management plans and for service providers to offer a wide range of recreation opportunities to promote long-term industrial sustainability. This study categorized diving preferences into two subgroups (physical and biological) to explore the association between diving preferences and divers’ sociodemographic characteristics, as well as diving experiences through multiple regression analysis. Questionnaire surveys were administered, with 398 completed responses successfully collected from diving hotspots in Hong Kong. Results revealed that divers’ sociodemographic status, particularly monthly salary, could affect their physical and biological preferences. Meanwhile, divers’ diving experience was found to be a significant predictor in figuring out their biological preferences. However, no relationship between diving experience and physical preference was identified in this study. These results could inform management authorities in implementing ecological and environmental protection because biological conditions are considered the most attractive motivation for divers to dive in Hong Kong. Similarly, these results may help managers better understand divers’ recreation needs based on different sociodemographic characteristics and diving experiences to create diverse recreation opportunities while enhancing their satisfaction by avoiding the negative impacts associated with identified preference attributes.
... One factor that could be explored in future research is the relative experience of divers in relation to their answers to the survey. It has been shown that novice divers have a greater preference for and enjoyment of artificial reefs compared to more experienced divers, who prefer natural reefs [43]. As custom designed artificial reefs are still a relatively new practice, it would also be of interest to explore preferences long term to determine whether experienced divers prefer mature artificial reef environments with greater biodiversity or disregard them altogether. ...
The largest underwater sculpture in the world, the ‘Coral Greenhouse’ by artist Jason deCaires Taylor, was commissioned by the Museum of Underwater Art and installed at John Brewer Reef, Australia, in December 2019. The planning process required certified engineering design drawings associated with design life, durability and suitability of materials, and baseline ecological surveys. Following approval, the operational phase required annual monitoring of substrate, ecology, social values, and marine debris. We geo-referenced three permanent transects and designed a before/after rapid monitoring assessment of substrate, fish, and invertebrates. Substrate surveys indicated 11% concrete and 89% sand. Fish surveys indicated significant increases of diversity and abundance, with 12 species and 65 individuals recorded in 2018 compared to 46 species and 365 individuals recorded in 2022. Macroinvertebrate species maintained no significant trends in abundance, species richness, and diversity with respect to time between 2018 and 2022. We monitored coral restoration and natural recruitment at the site, measuring aesthetics, survivorship of planted corals, and coral recruitment. Of 131 corals transplanted in March 2020, survivorship was 100% at 1 month, 92% at 6 months, and 91.6% at 12 months. Hard and soft corals were recruited to the structure at a density of 8.35 hard corals/m2 and 10.9 soft corals/m2 over 26 months.
... 다이버를 나누는 기준으 로 여가전문화(recreational specialization)라는 개념이 있 다. 여가전문화란 여가 활동의 일반적인 참여자가 특별한 참여자로 변화하는 행동의 연속과정이다(김과 오 2018;Bryan 1977). 다이빙 전문화에 따른 관리방안 선호도를 살펴본 선행연구는 일반적으로 통일된 결과를 보여주지 는 않지만(Lucrezi et al. 2013) 다이버의 태도와 행동 그리 고 새로운 관리 정책 선호나 지지 등을 이해하는데 도움을 주기 때문에 많은 연구에서 사용하였다(Anderson and Loomis 2011;Kirkbride-Smith et al. 2013;Oliveira et al. 2015). 해양 수산부 2004). ...
A marine protected area (MPA) is a spatially designated section of the ocean where the biodiversity is high. Munseom MPA has a unique underwater landscape including soft coral, subtropical fish, and benthos, attracting many scuba divers. This paper intends to evaluate the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for the scuba diving management policy in the Munseom MPA. As a stated preference valuation method, a choice experiment was applied to assess divers' preferences with economic values for the policy. The attributes used in the study included zoning (temporal closure), conservation education, daily permit, soft coral area, and diving fee. We collected 333 questionnaires through online and field surveys and used 296 after excluding incomplete responses for the final data analysis. Study results show that a six-month closure, a decrease in soft coral habitat, and the diving fee were statistically significant. A positive coefficient with regard to the six-month closure variable indicates that divers preferred the policy, and the marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) was estimated to be KRW 8,637 per person per dive. The aggregate WTP of KRW 233 million was obtained by multiplying the MWTP by the number of visiting divers per year. When comparing the levels of recreation specialization, more skilled divers preferred the management option. The results of this study will help predict the priority of management measures and the levels of acceptability among divers when diving management is implemented in Korea in the future. This study suggests that marine environmental policies need to consider divers as one of the important stakeholders for marine conservation.
... Diving to wrecks attracts most divers (Edney, 2012;Shani et al., 2012;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013). As a special area, wrecks create a new source of motivation for divers, so wreck diving has gained popularity (Edney, 2006). ...
Shipwrecks attract divers. Therefore, decommissioned marine vehicles are used as artificial reefs for recreational diving tourism around the world. We examined divers' attitudes towards shipwrecks and their function as an ecological enhancers. The study was carried out in the Karaburun Peninsula, Turkey, where two passenger ships were sunk as artificial wreck reefs to attract diving tourism. Using a questionnaire survey accompanied by face-to-face interviews, of both certified divers and non-certified discovery divers we collected information about divers reefs preferences, perception of artificial reefs as well as their socio-demographic characteristics, dive experiences etc. Differences in divers’ wreck (historical or artificial) and reef preferences (natural reefs or artificial wrecks) were analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U test. Overall, divers held the position that artificial wreck reefs provide ecological benefits on fish diversity and stocks (p < 0.05), and experienced divers supported this position more that novice ones. However, experience and number of annual dives did not affect this notion. Non-certified respondents were mostly neutral towards the ecologic and management statements. However, the majority of divers (84%) preferred to dive on natural reefs rather than on shipwrecks. Similarly, most of them (83%) preferred diving to historical shipwrecks which sank in wars or accidents, and not on ships intentionally sunk as attractions. These findings, which are in line with previous literature, put a question mark on the growing practice of sinking nearly any ship to create diving attractions.
... A major benefit encouraging the use of shipwrecks is their attraction for tourism and SCUBA diving (Kirkbride-Smith et al. 2013;Lima et al. 2019;GBSDC. 2020). ...
... Given inexperienced divers can resuspend sediment on top of organisms like corals, topple corals, touch sensitive corals or other organisms thus causing harm (Polak and Shashar 2012;Tynyakov et al. 2017), there has been a movement towards teaching divers how to dive safely on artificial reefs rather than natural ones in order to protect natural reefs (Kirkbride-Smith et al. 2013). As many purposefully sunken ships are modified and cleaned prior to their sinking, wrecks are considered safer options for training and skill developmental opportunities (Edney and Spennemann 2015). ...
Te Tauihu (Top of the South Island, NZ) Councils (MLDC, NLCC, TLDC) sought advice on options for activities or actions to reverse the decline in state of coastal and marine habitats to build resilience in these habitats likely to be impacted by climate change. An Envirolink medium advice grant was used to review local reasons for restoration, summarise existing relevant marine restoration techniques and identify methods or species relevant for Te Tauihu highlighting ‘shovel-ready’ projects. Shellfish restoration was considered the top priority because of the areal extent of historic degradation. Restoration of such habitats are very likely to produce additional benefits to fisheries production (shellfisheries, fishes), and contribute to reducing climate change risks (through carbon sequestration and through the greater resilience provided by healthy ecosystems). Successful restoration of shellfish and seaweeds/grasses is more likely if soft sediment habitats can also be protected from benthic disturbance and if terrestrial sediment discharge into coastal marine areas is reduced. Recent restoration successes (e.g., green-lipped mussels, saltmarsh) and increasing knowledge of climate change risks provide encouragement and impetus to continue broadening the scope and scale of marine restoration efforts in Te Tauihu.
... This finding confirms the results of previous studies which have found out that the high caring attitude toward the environment conservation issues of divers and dive operators can reduce the negative impact of recreational diving at various dive sites around the world (Cerrano et al., 2016;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013;Lowe & Tejada, 2019;Pabel & Coghlan, 2011;Ríos-Jara et al., 2013;Roche et al., 2016). ...
Through the perspective of partnership for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 17th), this study aims to identify and describe the information gaps among stakeholders of the dive tourism industry of Komodo National Park as one of the super-priority tourism destinations in Indonesia. Researchers studied documents, performed field observation, and conducted in-depth interviews with 20 stakeholders. Qualitative content analysis revealed several notable findings. First, the information gaps among stakeholders are generally linked to knowledge disparity about tourism-technical and local sociocultural issues. Sociocultural information, particularly on environment preservation issues, shows the tendency to predominate everyday discourse rather than tourism technical information. Second, the foreigner community appears to be better than local stakeholders at mastering the sociocultural information discourse, particularly in terms of collaboration on environment preservation information. Further studies are needed to examine the interaction among actors predominating the sociocultural information management and their strategies to collaborate in maximizing the role of Destination Management Organization-Destination Governance (DMO-DG).
... natural versus artificial reefs or habitat preferences). Most papers dealt with case studies from the United States and neighbouring countries together with Israel and France (Murray and Betz, 1994;Ditton et al., 2002;Stolk et al., 2007;Shani et al., 2012;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013;Tessier et al., 2015;Belhassen et al., 2017;ten Brink and Dalton, 2018;Montes et al., 2019). The studies indicated that artificial reefs were favoured over natural reefs owing to the relative ease of access, although levels of satisfaction with artificial reefs were found to decline with diver experience (Belhassen et al., 2017). ...
... The studies indicated that artificial reefs were favoured over natural reefs owing to the relative ease of access, although levels of satisfaction with artificial reefs were found to decline with diver experience (Belhassen et al., 2017). Recreational divers valued subjective elements associated with artificial reefs such as the opportunity to witness the range of underwater biodiversity, gain a different experience and take photographs (Ditton et al., 2002;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013). Shipwrecks were the preferred type of artificial reef, followed by oil and gas infrastructure (Murray and Betz, 1994;Ditton et al., 2002;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013). ...
... Recreational divers valued subjective elements associated with artificial reefs such as the opportunity to witness the range of underwater biodiversity, gain a different experience and take photographs (Ditton et al., 2002;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013). Shipwrecks were the preferred type of artificial reef, followed by oil and gas infrastructure (Murray and Betz, 1994;Ditton et al., 2002;Kirkbride-Smith et al., 2013). Overcrowding was the main source of dissatisfaction, with some respondents indicating that zoning was needed to reduce conflict between recreational divers and recreational fishers (Ditton et al., 2002). ...
Man-made marine structures (MMS) are commonly used to describe any artificial structure in the marine environment, encompassing oil and gas infrastructure and pipelines, artificial reefs, jetties, piers and shipwrecks. MMS are increasingly proposed to address issues facing marine planners, including augmenting fish stocks through the creation of artificial reefs and the repurposing of redundant offshore oil and gas infrastructure (‘rigs to reefs’). Marine spatial planning is a highly contested process, characterised by multiple stakeholders with often divergent priorities due to competing objectives and values. Understanding stakeholder perspectives in relation to MMS is therefore critical in formulating appropriate policies. This review presents the first systematic and comprehensive integration of information from academic journals and ‘grey’ literature relating to social and economic values and perceptions of MMS. The review identifies that, despite advocacy for research on social and economic values of MMS, there are significant gaps in knowledge, in particular relating to comparative assessments of stakeholder values across different types of MMS. Priority areas for future research are highlighted.
... They can provide resources like shelter, spawning and nursery grounds and surface for settlement, and have been shown to enhance different types of fisheries (Banqueiro-Cárdenas, 2011;Fabi and Spagnolo, 2011;Whitmarsh et al., 2008). Artificial reefs have also been used to improve tourism and the diving experience (Stolk and Markwell, 2007), surfing and sand retention (Innes et al., 2005), and have helped to divert attention of humans away from NR (Kirkbride-- Smith et al., 2013;Shani et al., 2012) including the prevention of trawling (Norman-Barea, 2010) highlighting their use for conservation and management. ...
... Here lies the general assumption that ARs "perform" better than NR. Because of the high aggregation of marine life around these structures, support for deployment of ARs has come from different stakeholders like fishermen (recreational and commercial), tourism industries, diving community and environmental managers (Kirkbride- Smith et al., 2013;Shani et al., 2012;Bortone et al., 2011). However, if they are not adequately managed, ARs could have negative effects over biological communities like facilitating overfishing (Grossman et al., 1997;Polovina, 1991a,b) and invasion by lionfish (Pterois spp.) (Smith and Shurin, 2010). ...
... Additionally, all three ARs (RR, TR, and AC) were relatively easy to access, and offered a unique setting for underwater activities like SCUBA. These features have been shown to attract divers and divert attention from overutilized natural coral reef areas (Kirkbride- Smith et al., 2013;Shani et al., 2012;Stolk and Markwell, 2007) highlighting their potential to be promoted to enhance tourism activities at these sites and encourage conservation. ...
When accompanied with well-informed management actions, active restoration strategies such as coral gardening and deployment of artificial reef structures can help mitigate negative effects of human impact on fish assemblages associated to natural reefs. However, ecological patterns of variation of fish assemblages associated with artificial reefs are poorly understood. From mid-April 2018 to mid-June 2019, we compared fish assemblages associated to one of four types of reef structures: natural reefs (NR), transplanted reefs (TR; i.e., Acropora palmata colonies), concrete modules or restoration reefs (RR), and accidental reefs (AC; submerged docks and shipwrecks) across twelve sites around Puerto Rico. Response variables were abundance, biomass, and number of species per sample and these were correlated with environmental factors that could influence the observed patterns of spatial and temporal variation in fish assemblages. Despite natural seasonal fluctuations, differences in fish assemblages between reef types were generally greater than differences among sites, although less obvious between TR and NR. Based on these results, and on the assumption that the general aim of artificial reef deployment is to mimic natural reef function, we highlight the need for management strategies that are tailored to site-specific or reef-specific goals and needs. Our study reinforces the importance of multivariate statistics to recognize patterns of spatial and temporal variation at the smallest spatial scales, understand ecosystem function, and to improve the effectiveness of management actions concerning active restoration strategies like coral gardening and creation of artificial reef habitats.
... A multimetric index expressed as a simple categorical indicator would be easier for divers to decide whether their dive would be enjoyable. Literature identifies the amount of live coral cover as the second most common coral community metric associated with making dives pleasurable (Pendleton 1994, Williams and Polunin 2000, Uyarra et al. 2005, Kirkbride-Smith et al. 2013, Schuhmann et al. 2013, Flores-de la Hoya et al. 2018 with coral colony abundance a close second (Shafer 2000, Wielgus et al. 2010, Paterson et al. 2012, Polak and Shashar 2013. For fish communities, fish abundance was the most preferred metric cited (Leeworthy and Wiley 1996, Shafer 2000, Williams and Polunin 2000, Wielgus et al. 2003, Uyarra et al. 2005, Polak and Shashar 2013, followed by fish size (Shafer 2000, Williams and Polunin 2000, White 2008, Uyarra et al. 2009, Paterson et al. 2012, Giglio et al. 2015, Flores-de la Hoya et al. 2018. ...
There is an astonishing diversity of ways in which people benefit from coral reefs. They provide recreation, resource extraction, inspirational, and educational opportunities, among many others as well as being valued just for their existence. As the condition of coral reef ecosystems decline, so do their ability to provide these benefits. Prudent management of coral reefs and the benefits they provide are important as some predict most coral reefs globally will be lost by the mid‐21st century. Meanwhile, coral reef managers have limited tools and relevant data to design and implement effective environmental management practices that will enable coral reefs to provide benefits demanded by society. We demonstrate an approach to identify and measure environmental components of coral reefs that directly benefit human well‐being. The approach views ecosystems through the lens of a specific set of beneficiaries and the biophysical features directly relevant to each. We call these biophysical features Final Ecosystem Goods and Services (FEGS). In our demonstration, we (1) identify a range of beneficiaries of coral reefs; (2) identify metrics of FEGS for those beneficiaries; and (3) describe how data quantifying those biophysical metrics might be used to facilitate greater economic and social understanding.
