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![Figure 4: distribution of car trip length in the Netherlands [7].](profile/Henk-Nijmeijer/publication/236609252/figure/fig5/AS:667659024752643@1536193724442/distribution-of-car-trip-length-in-the-Netherlands-7_Q320.jpg)
A battery electric vehicle is being developed at the Eindhoven University of Technology, which will be used in future research projects regarding electric mobility. Energy storage in batteries is still at least 25 times heavier and has 10 times the volume in comparison to fossil fuel. This leads to an increase of the vehicle weight, especially when...
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The large-scale electrical energy storage using rechargeable batteries buoys any future success in the global efforts to shift energy usage away from fossil fuels to renewable sources. Compared with other battery technologies, such as Li-S and LIBs, the metal-air battery technology holds exceptionally high energy densities and is viewed to be a pro...
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... This battery weight does not include the additional power electronics or cooling that would be required, which could be up to 200 kg for a battery of this size. 36,37 In this case it is assumed that the cooling and power electronics required for the battery pack would be of a similar weight to those required for the engine-generator on standard Class 80x trains, and so they have not been included in the model's additional weight calculations. ...
The fastest way to decarbonise traction energy of a railway network is full electrification of the network. However, full electrification can be costly and is often delayed due to complicated planning procedures. Often, it is not financially viable to electrify certain sections of the network due to geographical challenges such as hillsides and requirements to raise or lower the tracks. Intermittent electrification can provide a way to reduce emissions on a route without fully electrifying it. This paper presents an optimal intermittent electrification strategy and compares its effects on required battery size to a ‘common-sense’ approach. The “common-sense” approach is a heuristic electrification method where high-power sections of the route are electrified first. Energy savings are demonstrated using a validated high-fidelity bi-mode train model on the Newbury-Plymouth route of Great Western Railway in the UK. Unlike prior research, the optimal electrification strategy considers energy consumptions for both directions of a journey on the route and is therefore optimal regardless of travel direction. The 278-km Newbury-Plymouth route was divided into 50 equal discrete sections for the optimization process, which then identified sections that should be prioritised for electrification as they consume the maximum energy. A high charge/discharge lithium titanite-oxide battery was modelled and installed on the virtual vehicle to determine the required battery sizing for given optimal percentages of intermittent electrification. The battery sizing strategy includes battery wear effects from charge/discharge cycle life and shows the battery life to be 1.42 years if kept at 55°C and 6 years if kept at 25°C. At 36% electrification, using the ‘common-sense’ approach, the battery weighs 10,500 kg and the battery-OLE train reduces the CO 2 emissions and energy usage on the route by 83% when compared to the diesel-only train.
... BEVs usually have a greater weight primarily due to their battery, especially long-range versions (18). 50 ...
... Caribbean SIDS to establish e-mobility policies that create the greatest possible positive impact. The 18 small vehicle market size of the Caribbean nations poses a risk of supply limitations for EVs, especially in 19 ...
The rise of plug-in battery electric vehicles presents an excellent opportunity for small island developing states such as those of the Caribbean. The vehicles offer improved energy efficiency, enhanced energy security, and reduced foreign exchange expenditure. Incentivizing the uptake of electric vehicles seems to be an obvious policy decision, but there could be unintended consequences. Real-world driving cycles are essential for validating electric-vehicle energy and economic benefits using simulation studies. In drive-cycle methodologies, the microtrip method is the preferred choice for countrywide representation and is ideal for fuel consumption estimations. This paper reports on the first such real-world driving cycle for the Caribbean, specifically Trinidad and Tobago, which is developed using a microtrip construction method with a novel approach to establishing a slope profile. Highway and suburban segments show some distinct characteristics, including relatively high average accelerations and decelerations in the highway and suburban cycles and low average speeds of 40.2 km/h (highway) and 21.74 km/h (suburban). The driving cycle is unique but reasonable when compared with others derived in emerging economies.
... To understand the environmental and health risks derived from the production and disposal of end-of-life (EoL) electric vehicles and their batteries, it is important to know their composition. The batteries in e-vehicles account for minimum 15% of the vehicle's weight and are at least 25 times heavier and 10 times larger in comparison to fossil fuel combustion engines (Besselink et al. 2010), and only increasing with size as greater driving range is sought after. Thus, this component should receive special attention. ...
The transition from fossil-fuel-based internal combustion vehicles to electric vehicles plays a key role to decarbonize road transport and mitigate climate change. Even though this transition is still in its infancy, it is important to consider not only its environmental benefits but also its potential side-effects. The current electric vehicle fleet is expected to increase from 2.4 million in 2020 to 81 million in 2050 (Slowik et al. 2020), when more than half of all new cars sold are predicted to be battery-electric vehicles (BEVs). End-of-life (EOL) BEVs and their components (particularly the batteries) are far more challenging to manage than their fossil-fueled predecessors as they contain large amounts of chemical substances that constitute potential hazards to the environment and human health and safety. The paper discusses relevant topics for understanding future risks of transition to electric mobility in the Global South countries, which include the international used vehicle fluxes; waste management challenges for EoL BEV and its lithium-ion batteries (LIB); environmental and human health impacts of EoL LIBs disposal and policies and regulations for the e-vehicle life cycle. Recommendations to support the development of science-based policies to close regulation gaps of the used electric vehicle international trade flow, avoid pollution-shifting and guarantee a sustainable transition to e-mobility in the Global South countries are given. As a conclusion, an integrated approach from international and national stakeholders is fundamental to guarantee strong policies and regulations as well as to support the development of a sound management of EoL EV and LIBs in the Global South countries and help pave the way to a global circular economy.
... The average Li-ion pack price fell 85% from 2010 to 2018, while energy density increased by 150% from 2008 to 2014 [13,14]. Nevertheless, current Li-ion-based chemistries are infeasible for providing the entire energy demand for ocean-crossing ships because the energy density is 25-100 times less than in liquid hydrocarbon fuels [15]. However, short-distance zero-emission port arrival, mooring, and port departure are potential applications. ...
This paper evaluates the effect of a large-capacity electrical energy storage, e.g., Li-ion battery, on optimal sailing routes, speeds, fuel choice, and emission abatement technology selection. Despite rapid cost reduction and performance improvement, current Li-ion chemistries are infeasible for providing the total energy demand for ocean-crossing ships because the energy density is up to two orders of magnitude less than in liquid hydrocarbon fuels. However, limited distance zero-emission port arrival, mooring, and port departure are attainable. In this context, we formulate two groups of numerical problems. First, the well-known Emission Control Area (ECA) routing problem is extended with battery-powered zero-emission legs. ECAs have incentivized ship operators to choose longer distance routes to avoid using expensive low sulfur fuel required for compliance, resulting in increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The second problem evaluates the trade-off between battery capacity and speed on battery-powered zero-emission port arrival and departure legs. We develop a mixed-integer quadratically constrained program to investigate the least cost system configuration and operation. We find that the optimal speed is up to 50% slower on battery-powered legs compared to the baseline without zero-emission constraint. The slower speed on the zero-emission legs is compensated by higher speed throughout the rest of the voyage, which may increase the total amount of GHG emissions.
... The authors used the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule data to compare the calculated energies required for traction and braking using the developed model [8]. Besselink et al. [9] developed and demonstrated environmentally friendly alternatives for personal transport by converting a traditional internal combustion engine to a battery-electric vehicle. The authors emphasized achieving a low curb weight, high energy efficiency, and good performance while designing an alternative powertrain. ...
... The authors emphasized achieving a low curb weight, high energy efficiency, and good performance while designing an alternative powertrain. The main problem that arose was the heavy energy storage device with a limited capacity and relatively slow recharging capabilities [9]. Hossam T. Al-Fiky et al. [10] presented a detailed mathematical model of an in-wheel drive system using experimentally identified parameters. ...
... The authors used the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule data to compare the calculated energies required for traction and braking using the developed model [8]. Besselink et al. [9] developed and demonstrated environmentally friendly alternatives for personal transport by converting a traditional internal combustion engine to a battery-electric vehicle. The authors emphasized achieving a low curb weight, high energy efficiency, and good performance while designing an alternative powertrain. ...
... The authors emphasized achieving a low curb weight, high energy efficiency, and good performance while designing an alternative powertrain. The main problem that arose was the heavy energy storage device with a limited capacity and relatively slow recharging capabilities [9]. Hossam T. Al-Fiky et al. [10] presented a detailed mathematical model of an in-wheel drive system using experimentally identified parameters. ...
... In Refs. [20] and [21] range equations for electric vehicles are derived using Peukert law for the determination of discharge time as a function of the current drawn, which in turn is obtained from the expression of required power. However, it is important to underline that such analyses based on Peukert law are valid under the hypothesis of constant discharge current at constant battery voltage. ...
... according to the formulation used in [23]. In the case when = 1, the ideal situation in which discharge time is simply inversely proportional to the absorbed power is obtained according to [20], provided the equivalent constant voltage is assumed to be equal to the nominal voltage, namely = 0 , and 0 0 = 24.42 Wh is the battery nominal energy. ...
The paper describes an analytical and experimental framework which investigates performance of electrically-driven ground vehicles powered by battery packs, with the objective of providing simple indications for preliminary sizing of rovers designed for mission on the surface of extraterrestrial bodies. For this class of missions, power is at a premium, and energy-efficient locomotion is clearly a critical issue. An analytical model for the estimate of cruise distance is derived and mobility performance is thus analyzed as a function of cruise speed, relevant vehicle parameters, soil mechanical properties, and atmospheric data. Results are then validated by numerical simulations and an experimental campaign for an Earth-based rover.
... The COM also calculates the well-to-wheel CO2 emissions taking into account the data on CO2 emissions of power plants, as used in [28] for the cases considering coal, natural gas and renewable energy production. The HEV vs. CONV fleet CO2 emissions reduction is around 50%, while in the cases of PHEV and BEV fleets, the reduction is from 30% to 65% and from 30% to 93%, respectively, where the lower and higher margins correspond to coal and renewable energy production scenarios. ...
... The PHEV fleet electricity consumption equals almost 50% of what is consumed by BEV fleet, which is owing to a relatively low portion of operation in the CS mode (25.5%). The COM also calculates the well-to-wheel CO 2 emissions taking into account the data on CO 2 emissions of power plants, as used in [28] for the cases considering coal, natural gas and renewable energy production. The HEV vs. CONV fleet CO 2 emissions reduction is around 50%, while in the cases of PHEV and BEV fleets, the reduction is from 30% to 65% and from 30% to 93%, respectively, where the lower and higher margins correspond to coal and renewable energy production scenarios. ...
City bus transport electrification has a strong potential of improving city air quality, reducing noise pollution and increasing passenger satisfaction. Since the city bus operation is rather deterministic and intermittent, the driving range- and charging-related concerns may be effectively overcome by means of fast charging at end stations and/or slow charging in depot. In order to support decision making processes, a simulation tool for planning of city bus transport electrification has been developed and it is presented in this paper. The tool is designed to use real/recorded driving cycles and techno-economic data, in order to calculate the optimal type and number of e-buses and chargers, and predict the total cost of ownership including investment and exploitation cost. The paper focuses on computationally efficient e-bus fleet simulation including powertrain control and charging management aspects, which is illustrated through main results of a pilot study of bus transport electrification planning for the city of Dubrovnik.
... Although battery and charging technologies have developed at a fast pace in recent years, limited range is still a challenge with electric vehicles in general, because energy density of batteries is 25-100 times less than in liquid hydrocarbon fuels [4]. Increasing the battery capacity extends the range, but the size, weight, and cost set upper bound on the battery capacity. ...
This study investigates the potential of improving the energy efficiency and reducing the lifecycle costs of electric city buses with multispeed gearboxes. A two-speed dual clutch gearbox and a continuously variable transmission were studied and compared to a reference fixed gear ratio powertrain. A novel two-level optimization model was introduced. The top level involves an exhaustive search algorithm and quasi-static vehicle dynamic model for optimizing the two-speed gearbox gear ratios, utilizing efficiency maps for the electric motor and the inverter. The second level is an integer programming model, which finds an optimal gear shifting policy subject to constraints on hysteresis and gear shifting induced losses. The model was applied with a standard driving cycle and additionally with three measured cycles acquired from a prototype battery electric city bus operating on a daily schedule on a suburban route in Espoo, Finland. The results showed that a two-speed gearbox reduced energy consumption by 2–3.2%, depending on the driving cycle characteristics. On the other hand, the continuously variable transmission was found to increase consumption by 1.9–4.0% due to large losses of the belt mechanism. It was concluded that the two-speed gearbox is a cost-effective investment for electric city buses characterized by operation profiles with frequent acceleration and braking events.
... and how it pollutes the environment using its gasoline two or four stroke engine, so they started to make an electric prototype of this rickshaw replacing the gasoline propulsion system with an electric one. Besselink et al. [2010] investigated the performance of the gasoline VW Lupo 3L vehicle and then converted it into an electric propulsion vehicle replacing the engine with an electric motor. They compared the results of the vehicle on both statues of the car setting the challenges for the developments on the electric vehicles. ...
Significant with the increasing expense of fossil fuel and its depletion, and the impacts emission gases from petrol vehicles are having on our atmosphere, an alternative was needed. The design and fabrication of prototype battery electric vehicles is winding up progressively especially three wheel one. Three wheeled battery electric vehicles need the most ideal design conceivable to minimize the extent of energy necessary to power the vehicle. One of the paybacks of an incorporated design is a lighter vehicle, with high efficiency as a design objective focus. The lighter the vehicle, the lesser amount of energy it will necessitate to drive, therefore less greenhouse emissions. Three-wheel electric vehicle services are: university campus, clubs, hospitals, airports, residential compounds , villas, car and goods towing, trailer to haul the trash, remote area transportation etc. This work entails for investigation, design and building of a prototype three-wheeled battery drive electric vehicle with entire simple control system. A three-wheeled battery electric vehicle as an electric mobility is being developed and tested at Suez Canal University (Egypt) and Sepang International Circuit (Malaysia). The design of the three-wheeled battery electric vehicle must have many favorable characteristics such as low mass and good aerodynamics. The vehicle designed with one seat to be thrusted by brushed motor attached on the rear wheel and powered by 48V Lithium-ion battery. The numerical study is performed by MATLAB Simulink 2017 modeling and the results recorded 140km/kWh with regenerative braking system. The fabricated three-wheel battery electric vehicle total weight is 55kg. Its tested in different tracks, many attempts, with best result 100km/kWh. Vehicle maximum speed is 60km/h and the maximum efficiency is 70% at 25km/h.
