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Forest management activities can reduce ectomycorrhizal fungus diversity and forest regeneration success. We examine contrasts in structural retention as they affect sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)—a functional guild of organisms well suited as indicators of disturbance effects on below-ground ecosystems. Our results are from an...
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... each season, the time  treatment interac- tion (change in biomass from pre-to post-treatment) was significant for both mushroom and truffle total biomass (Table 4). After treatment, total spring mushroom biomass declined significantly in the 15%D basal area retention treatment as compared to all other treatments (Fig. 3). ...
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... In recently harvested stands, changes in EMF community composition occurs in relation to distance from intact forest, which is potentially linked to decreases in tree regeneration within clearcut interiors (Grove et al. 2019). However, negative effects of clearcutting on EMF communities can be ameliorated by retaining a portion of trees within the clearcut area (Luoma et al. 2004;Lazaruk et al. 2005;Kranabetter et al. 2013;Sterkenburg et al. 2019). As small mammals are adapted to locate truffles ) and may consume truffles in proportion to availability (Stephens et al 2017), investigating patterns of small-mammal consumption of truffles in harvested forests may provide insight into effects of forest management practices on EMF communities (McIntire 1984;Jacobs and Luoma 2008). ...
... However, our understanding of how consumption of truffles by chipmunks changes with variation in retention patches is nascent. As truffle-sporocarp (i.e., fruiting body) production declines at low levels of green-tree retention in logged forests (Luoma et al. 2004), there is reason to expect that chipmunk consumption of truffles may also decline in small compared to larger retention patches. ...
... In addition to documenting the taxonomic breadth of truffles consumed by chipmunks in managed forest landscapes, we further apply our technique to explore relationships between the truffle community observed in chipmunk diet and variation in retention forestry practices. Because live trees promote EMF persistence in logged forests (Luoma et al. 2004, Sterkenberg et al. 2019) and truffle taxa have variable sensitivities to disturbance, we expected the diversity and composition of truffles in chipmunk diets would vary in relation to the retention-patch characteristics where they were sampled. Specifically, we predicted that chipmunks sampled in larger retention patches and those connected to larger riparian corridors would consume a higher taxonomic richness of truffles, and abundance of common truffle species. ...
... For example, in a boreal forest, fungal communities in a harvested area in which 70 % of living trees were retained were similar to those in unmanaged forests (Kim et al., 2021). In a coastal Douglas-fir forest, numbers of ECM fungal sporocarps were reduced by only 18 % in areas with 75 % tree retention, compared with 50 % reduction where 40 % of trees were retained, and 80 % reduction where only 15 % of trees were retained (Luoma et al., 2004). In a Scots pine forest three years after harvest, ECM species richness declined to 70 %, 50 % and 25 % of that in the unharvested plots where 60 %, 30 % and 0 % of the trees had been retained in a dispersed pattern (Sterkenburg et al., 2019). ...
... The steep decline in belowground influence of trees with distance from patch edges indicates that dispersed retention (i.e, leaving living trees uniformly dispersed across the harvested area) could be more effective at sustaining soil biodiversity in harvested forests. For the same level of retention, Luoma et al. (2004) found smaller reductions in fall mushroom and truffle biomass in dispersed compared to aggregated retention blocks. In a Scots pine forest, Varenius et al., (2017) concluded that dispersed single retention trees do not 'life-boat' EMF mycelia and maintain EMF diversity throughout the harvested area, but this conclusion may be related to the low level of retention in these plots, which was similar to the Swedish average of 8 % of the stand basal area (Varenius et al., 2017;Anders Dahlberg, personal communication 9/15/ 2022). ...
An estimated half of the carbon fixed by trees is transported belowground, a portion of which is exuded into the soil where it fuels a complex belowground food web. The biological transformation of exudates into microbial metabolites and necromass is a major source of soil organic matter (SOM), including persistent mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM). Recent recognition of the fundamental importance of these inputs from living roots for sustaining life belowground and replenishing SOM demands a rethinking of how we harvest forests. By severing the lifeline of living roots, clearcut harvesting devastates much of the belowground biodiversity in forests, and prohibits a principal pathway through which SOM and C stocks are replenished. Retention harvesting retains the influence of living roots within retention patches and potentially throughout the harvested area, but only if inter-tree distances are 15 m or less. Retention trees sustain and support the reestablishment of belowground life and function following forest harvest and may mitigate post-harvest soil C losses. Sustaining the belowground ecosystem via inputs from living roots is an underappreciated benefit of continuous-cover and retention forestry.
... A tropical deciduous riverine forest located on the water edges has a more open canopy and less humidity in the soil which creates a less suitable habitat for the growth of macrofungi. Also, thinning of trees caused a decrease in fruit-body production of the delicate and fragile macrofungi, but this effect varied greatly depending on the season, the macrofungi fruiting pattern and the levels of trees thinning (Luoma et al. 2004). Therefore, thinning and pruning, which are common silvicultural activities in the community forests of Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2010), might also affect the composition and abundance of macrofungi. ...
Macrofungi are high-value forest resources that have functionally significant roles in the forest ecosystem. The macrofungal community of three different vegetation compositions, i.e., Sal (Shorea robusta) Forest, Tropical Deciduous Riverine Forest, and Tropical Evergreen Forest of Teghari Community Forest were investigated. Systematic random sampling was made where 60 plots (10 x 10 m) were laid in all different forest types (20 plots in each). A total of 102 macrofungi species were reported belonging to 36 families. Polyporaceae (17 species) was the largest family followed by Tricholomataceae (13 species) and saprophytic fungi were more frequent than mycorrhizal and parasitic fungi. The tropical evergreen forest was rich in macrofungi (59 species) followed by sal forest (40 species) and tropical deciduous riverine forest (38 species). Macrofungal diversity was directly related to surrounding host species. Similarly, increased soil moisture and canopy cover intensified the abundance of saprophytic fungi. The species richness was increased with increasing organic carbon, canopy, moisture, pH, and litter cover. However, soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were less significant in affecting species richness. Also, the disturbance was negatively correlated with the species richness of macrofungi. This study highlights the hidden diversity which is necessary for the conservation of macrofungi, to optimize forest ecosystem integrity and resilience against biotic and abiotic agents.
... However, other findings indicated that clear-cutting has profound long-lasting effects on the abundance and composition of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities [25,103,106]. Clear-cutting may cause a complete disappearance of energy supply to mycorrhizal fungi, while thinning only reduces energy input [25,27]. However, mycorrhizal fungi may remain unchanged due to clear cuttings if the fungi are associated with the retained trees or with the tree roots, extending into the felled area from the forest edges [107][108][109]. ...
This study aimed to assess the changes in chemical properties and fungal communities in the upper mineral soil layer in managed Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) ecosystems. Study sites were located in the three largest P. sylvestris massifs in Lithuania, and six sampling sites, representing different development stages of the P. sylvestris forest ecosystem, were selected in each of them: mature P. sylvestris forest stands; clear-cuts of former P. sylvestris mature stand; and the P. sylvestris plantations aging from the 1st to 4th year. High-throughput sequencing was performed to evaluate the soil fungus community at clear-cuts, early-stage reforested sites, and mature forests in Lithuania. This study has shown that, among other chemical soil parameters, the mean concentrations of mineral nitrogen (N), total phosphorus (P), and P2O5 were slightly higher in the clear-cut sites, and significantly higher in the 1st year plantations compared to the mature forests. The quality filtering after PacBio sequencing showed the presence of 60,898 high-quality fungal sequences, and 1143 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The most abundant fungal OTU in our study was Archaeorhizomyces sp. 5425_1. In total, 70 mycorrhizal fungal OTUs were found in the soil samples at the studied sites. The most abundant ectomycorrhizal fungus identified was Amanita fulva (Schaeff.) Fr. The highest amount of ectomycorrhizal fungal OTUs was found in the clear-cut sites and in the mature forests. The concentrations of mineral N and P2O5 in the upper mineral soil layer did not significantly affect fungal OTUs diversity. Conversely, a relatively strong correlation was obtained between the number of mycorrhizal fungal OTUs and the concentrations of total N and soil organic carbon (SOC), as well as between the numbers of saprotrophic fungal OTUs and the concentration of magnesium ions (Mg2+).
... Per il loro ruolo essenziale nel mantenimento della complessità e della biodiversità, in particolare degli ecosistemi terrestri, i funghi sono stati da tempo individuati quali possibili indicatori per il monitoraggio della biodiversità e dello stato di salute degli habitat. [128][129] In generale, per un appropriato approccio alla conoscenza delle comunità del suolo, l'organizzazione di ricerche approfondite dovrebbe prevedere un elevato grado di multidisciplinarietà. Per identificare le diverse funzioni della comunità del suolo, anche in relazione alle relazioni competitive, simbiontiche e parassitiche con le specie micologiche, sono, infatti, utilizzate, oltre al semplice rilevamento di specie e consistenza delle popolazioni, diverse metodologie, ognuna delle quali in grado di fornire diverse informazioni sull'uso del substrato e sulle relazioni tra gli organismi in relazione al diverso livello di scala di osservazione: la metagenomica, la metatrascrittomica, metodi basati sulla coltura ad alta intensità di tempo combinati con test funzionali, profili fisiologici a livello di comunità. 130-131 ...
... In particolare, le micorrize costituiscono una barriera fisica alla penetrazione di parassiti nell'apice radicale e modificano qualitativamente e quantitativamente i metaboliti vegetali emessi nella rizosfera; inoltre, generalmente producono composti antibiotici che rappresentano una barriera tossica nei confronti di molti microrganismi del terreno. [127][128][129] Ai fini dell'osservazione e della valutazione dei cambiamenti nella funzionalità del suolo è necessario individuare marcatori metabolici: un buon esempio è rappresentato dalla glomalina, una glicoproteina idrofobica prodotta dai funghi micorrizici arbuscolari (AMF), ubiquitari nelle radici delle maggior parte delle piante terrestri: la glomalina, in particolare, si accumula nel suolo sotto forma di una sostanza proteica denominata "Glomalin Related Soil Protein" (GRSP). 132 ...
This ISPRA book, entitled “Micological biodiversity and its knowledge.
Mushrooms between innovation and tradition ", allow readers to start a journey of knowledge in the world of mushrooms. It intends to be a popularizing tool to solicit basic knowledge and to deepen and suggest a correct and responsible relationship with the environment and with all of its component.
The work includes a general part concerning the groups that make up the Kingdom of Mushrooms, with description of the different shapes, colors, sizes and toxicity, to then deal with the topic of biodiversity.
It ends with a part on Mushrooms and Institutions. The chapters are also accompanied by in-depth boxes that touch on problems of basic, of a technical-methodological, environmental and biotechnological nature.
... From the point of view of fungal diversity and ecosystem functionality, retention silviculture can also be more positive compared to clear-cutting (Luoma et al. 2004), whether scattered tree retention (Churchland et al. 2021) or so-called retention patch (Simard et al. 2021) is applied, as microenvironmental changes occur at the site level, with localized effects (Varenius et al. 2016). ...
... although the yield recovered in the following 6 years (Pilz et al. 2006). However, high or low intensity thinning has also been reported to lead to reduced carpophore yield (Luoma et al. 2004). Ultimately, the response of fungal yield to thinning could depend on the intensity of forest thinning, the time period after disturbance, the fungal species, and possible soil disturbance . ...
In the current context in which mycological resources have acquired a strong socio-economic interest, forest mycological management is necessary, with objectives of ecological sustainability in their use and conservation. The key implication of soil fungi in forest biogeochemical processes and the new knowledge on ectomycorrhizal networks and edaphic microbial ecology, make it necessary to rethink traditional silviculture and to study its effects on forest fungal communities. In the Mediterranean region, the current prospects of climate change seem to increase the stress on forest soils and forest life, already affected by poor management and commercial overexploitation of mushrooms, among other causes. We review in this chapter the literature on silvicultural practices that have positively or negatively affected soil fungal diversity and yield, focusing especially on experiences in the Mediterranean forest. We briefly analyze the potential of mycorrhizal applications and the knowledge of ectomycorrhizal networks for their application in forest management. The application of retention silviculture practices, retaining trees, tree patches or understory during forest harvesting can help to preserve ectomycorrhizal networks, buffering the disturbances generated by silvicultural treatments.
... Moreover, ectomycorrhizal fruiting richness is reported to decrease exponentially with increasing cutblock size , an effect that can be partially offset by the retention of mature trees in harvested areas (Luoma et al. 2004). This suggests that intact forests, as well as mature retention trees, play an important role in maintaining ectomycorrhizal communities belowground, which (coupled with other environmental variables) would help to explain the marked difference in ectomycorrhizal mushroom fruiting that we observed between patch cuts and nearby forest. ...
Forest-dwelling fungi are critical to ecosystem function in their roles as decomposers and nutrient cyclers, food sources, pathogens, and mycorrhizal symbionts. In northern New England, a region with a substantial timber industry, the degree to which fungal communities are resilient to timber harvest, as well as their ability to recolonize post-disturbance, may impact ecosystem function and forest regeneration. In this thesis, we investigate the impacts of (1) timber harvest on fungal fruiting, an important element of fungal reproduction, and (2) the dispersal mechanisms by which fungi may re-colonize harvested areas.
In Chapter 1, we investigate the impact of timber harvest on epigeous fungal fruiting patterns. Fruiting has important impacts on fungal reproduction and ecosystem function. Forest disturbances such as timber harvest impact moisture, host availability, and substrate availability, which in turn may drive changes in fungal fruiting patterns and community structure. We surveyed mushrooms in 0.4-ha patch cuts (18 months post-harvest) and adjacent intact hardwood forest in northern New Hampshire, USA, to document the effects of timber harvest on summer fruiting richness, biomass, diversity, and community structure of ectomycorrhizal, parasitic, and
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saprobic mushroom taxa. Fungal fruiting richness, diversity, and community heterogeneity were greater in intact forests than patch cuts. Among functional groups, ectomycorrhizal fruiting richness, diversity, and biomass were greater in unharvested areas than in the patch cuts, but parasitic and saprobic fruiting did not differ statistically between the two forest conditions. Our findings suggest that timber harvest simplifies fungal fruiting communities shortly after harvest, in particular triggering declines in ectomycorrhizal taxa which are important symbionts facilitating tree establishment and regeneration. Multi-aged silvicultural practices that maintain mature forest conditions adjacent to and throughout harvested areas through deliberate retention of overstory trees and downed woody material may promote fungal fruiting diversity in regenerating stands.
In Chapter 2, we compare fungal spore dispersal between wind and small mammals. Spore dispersal has important impacts on fungal diversity and ecosystem function. Dispersal can occur via several mechanisms, but wind is perhaps the best-studied and is often assumed to be the primary dispersal mechanism for most aboveground fungi. Mycophagy is another commonly reported dispersal mechanism, particularly as performed by small mammals, which are often speciose and abundant in forested systems. Few studies directly compare wind- and mammal- facilitated spore dispersal. Thus, it is unclear whether these pathways are complementary or redundant in the taxa they disperse and the ecosystem functions they provision. Here we compare the diversity and morphology of fungi dispersed by wind and three species of small mammals (Myodes gapperi, Napaeozapus insignis, and Tamias striatus) in recently harvested patch cuts using a combination of microscopy and Illumina sequencing. We demonstrate that fungal communities dispersed by wind and small mammals differ in taxonomy and species
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richness, as well as functional group membership. A large proportion of wind-dispersed spores belong to wood saprotrophs, litter saprotrophs, mycoparasites, and plant pathogens, whereas most spores dispersed in mammal scat come from mycorrhizal and unspecified saprotrophic taxa. We note substantial dispersal of truffles, mushrooms, AM sporocarps, jellies, and crusts by small mammals. In addition, we find that mammal-dispersed spores are larger on average than wind-dispersed spores, but do not differ in melanization or the presence of ornamentation. We quantify dispersal distances of small mammals by modeling home range and core area size using kernel density estimators from mark-recapture survey data, finding the distance to be comparable to those reported in the literature for wind-based dispersal. Our findings suggest that wind- and small mammal-facilitated dispersal are complementary processes, which highlights the importance of maintaining robust small mammal communities, particularly following timber harvest.
... Ectomycorrhizal fungi form a symbiosis with trees and certain shrub species. They influence nutrient and water uptake and absorption [14], plant growth and survival [15,16], and plant resistance to plant pathogens [17]. Bacterial communities are the third partner in the symbiosis between fungi and plant roots [18,19], which seem to be crucial in the complex biological processes of exchange involving nutrients [20,21]. ...
Tuber melanosporum (Ascomycota, Pezizales) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus that produces highly appreciated hypogeous fruiting bodies called black truffles. The aim of this paper was to research the composition of ectomycorrhiza-associated fungal and bacterial communities in T. melanosporum oak plantations. Results of this paper showed the competitive effect of T. melanosporum on other fungal species, especially other mycorrhizal and pathogenic species. T. melanosporum was shown to be associated mainly with bacteria, some of them important for their properties as mycorrhizal helper bacteria. A dendrogram analysis of co-occurrence showed that T. melanosporum tended to co-occur with the following bacteria species: Singulisphaera limicola, Nannocistis excedens and Sporosarcina globispora. In addition, it was linked to fungal species such as Mortierella elongata, M. minutissima, Cryptococcus uzbekistanensis, C. chernovii and C. aerius. This study provides an exhaustive analysis of the diversity, structure and composition of fungal and bacterial communities associated with T. melanosporum to enhance understanding of the biology, composition and role of these communities in truffle plantations.
... Sporocarp production following a moderate-or high-intensity thinning treatment was considerably lower than in control plots, which supports the findings observed by Luoma et al. (2004). This decrease in sporocarp production following thinning can be easily explained because the loss of the green parts of a plant will reduce photosynthetic productivity and, hence, less fixed carbon will be available to symbionts, which reduces their ability to form new structures such as sporocarps (Högberg et al., 2001;Kuikka et al., 2003;Lamhamedi et al., 1994;Last et al., 1979). ...
... Similar findings have rarely been reported in similar studies (Castaño et al., 2018;Egli et al., 2010;Kranabetter and Kroeger, 2001). Thinning, clearing or any treatment that result in the loss of photosynthetic tree organs are considered to lead to a reduction in fungal richness (Hernández-Rodríguez et al., 2015;Kuikka et al., 2003;Luoma et al., 2004) but this was not what our results showed in a global overview (Fig. 1B), which is in contradiction with other studies (Buée et al., 2011;Colgan et al., 1999;Hernández-Rodríguez et al., 2015;Kropp and Albee, 1996). By contrast, just focusing on the trees treatment, the richness values of plots in which oak trees had been less intensively thinned were not significantly different to those of the control plots, as the ones with high intensity thinning were significantly less rich (Fig. 1E). ...
... So, in contrast to what was maintained regarding sporocarps production, the intensity degree may be evaluated and if the purpose is to maintain a richer fungal population, moderate intensity treatment over trees should be applied. Supporting this idea, fungal richness is an important issue because its influence on the conservation of mycophagous animals as well their predators (Luoma et al., 2004). The integration of an analysis of priority on fire prevention areas should be helpful to generate a geographical ordination of areas. ...
Wildfire is a recurrent factor that shapes and influences Mediterranean ecosystems where mixed oak (Quercus) forests with a rockrose (Cistus) understory are broadly represented. These ecosystems are also associated with large and diverse fungal communities. These fungal communities play essential ecological roles for the survival of vascular plant, such as the mineral and water uptaking or resistance against pathogens carried out by mycorrhizal fungi, as the saprotrophic fungi are a key factor for the recycling of the dead matter. In addition, edible fungi, such as Boletus edulis, provide a source of income for the nearby rural population. Fuel reduction treatments are applied to reduce the risk of wildfire; however, their potential impact on fungal communities is unclear. Thus, the aim of this work was to investigate the effect of different fuel reduction treatments on fungi associated with Quercus and Cistus. This aim is accompanied by the management-driven objective to obtain data from fuel reduction treatments that will enable managers to find solutions with a balanced approach to maintaining productive areas of edible mushroom production while reducing fire risks across the landscape. Sporocarps were sampled over a five-year period in stands dominated by mature or coppiced Quercus pyrenaica and accompanied by Cistus ladanifer understory. These stands had been subjected to different fuel reduction treatment levels involving moderate- or high-intensity thinning, for Q. pyrenaica, or clearing, for C. ladanifer. The goal was to determine sporocarp production, species richness, and taxonomic composition. Sporocarp production and fungal richness were drastically affected by the fuel reduction treatments but only when C. ladanifer is included in the treatment. Taxa composition was strongly correlated with the treatments applied to the rockrose understory. This was probably due to the large range of associated ectomycorrhizal fungi of C. ladanifer and their high capacity to recolonize an area after disturbances. Based on our results, we conclude that the implementation of moderate-/high-intensity fuel reduction treatments is compatible with the conservation of the fungal community present in these systems. In addition, the creation of a multi-stage mosaic of stands through mechanical management could enable fire prevention to be managed in an effective way while maintaining fungal diversity and sporocarp production, favoring the use of non-wood resources in rural areas and conserving a healthier forest ecosystem.
... Accordingly, Mummey et al. (2010) found that fungal biomass was significantly reduced in grand fir, lodgepole pine, and Douglas-fir forest soils following clear-cutting. Similarly, Luoma et al. (2004), found a decrease in ectomycorrhizal (ECM) sporocarp production in sites with lower stem retention in both aggregated-and dispersed-harvesting regimes. However, other studies have shown that the presence of aggregated tree clumps can support mycorrhizal communities up to 10 m (Jones et al., 2008) and even 20 m into a clear-cut area through root-exuded C (Churchland et al., 2012). ...
As an alternative to clear-cutting, variable-retention harvesting is now standard forest management practice on the coast of British Columbia and in temperate forests globally, due to the benefits associated with maintaining mature forest species and forest structural diversity. Although there is some evidence that variable-retention harvesting, particularly single-tree (dispersed) retention will mitigate the impacts of clear-cutting on soil microbial communities and nutrient cycling, findings have been inconsistent. We examined microbial community structure (phospholipid-fatty acid), and nutrient availability (PRS TM probes) in a large (aggregated) retention patch and over three harvesting treatments: dispersed retention, clear-cut and clear-cut edge 2 years after harvest. Unlike previous studies, we did not observe elevated nitrate in the harvested areas, instead ammonium was elevated. Availability of N and other nutrients were surprisingly similar between the dispersed-retention treatment and the retention patch. The microbial community, however, was different in the clear-cut and dispersed-retention treatments, mostly due to significantly lower abundance of fungi combined with an increase in bacteria, specifically Gram-negative bacteria. This was accompanied by lower δ ¹³ C PDB value of the Gram-negative PLFA's in these treatments, suggesting the decline in mycorrhizal fungal abundance may have allowed the dominant Gram-negative bacteria to access more of the recently photosynthesized C. This shift in the microbial community composition in the dispersed-retention treatment did not appear to have a major impact on microbial functioning and nutrient availability, indicating that this harvesting practice is more effective at maintaining generic microbial functions/processes. However, as Mn levels were twice as high in the retention patch compared to the harvested treatments, indicating the other “narrow” processes (i.e., those performed by a small number of specialized microorganisms), such as lignin degradation, catalyzed by Mn peroxidase, which concomitantly removes Mn from solution, may be more sensitive to harvesting regimes. The effect of harvesting on such narrow nutrient cycling processes requires further investigation.
