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Expert witnesses using facial comparison techniques are regularly required to disambiguate cases of disputed identification in CCTV images and other photographic evidence in court. This paper describes a novel software-assisted photo-anthropometric facial landmark identification system, DigitalFace tested against a database of 70 full-face and prof...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... mid-zoom, it was approximately 10 cm, both larger than in real life. Throughout the process, DigitalFace provides a visual reminder of each landmark to be located, using its 'common' name in the order listed in Figure 1 . From this, a line parallel to one connecting the inner eyes is projected onto the screen for identification of the edge of the face at this vertical height (Figure 1, Locations 14 & 15). ...
Context 2
... the process, DigitalFace provides a visual reminder of each landmark to be located, using its 'common' name in the order listed in Figure 1 . From this, a line parallel to one connecting the inner eyes is projected onto the screen for identification of the edge of the face at this vertical height (Figure 1, Locations 14 & 15). The procedure takes less than 5 minutes. ...
Context 3
... in full-face view Permanent horizontal distances (see Figure 1 for key to landmark numbers) F1 Distance between inner eyes (1 -2) F2 Nose width (9 -10) F3 ...
Context 4
... a visual reminder of each landmark to be located, using its ‘common’ name in the order listed in Figure 1 for full-face views and Figure 2 for profile views (listed with anatomical nomenclature). Using a computer mouse, cross hairs are moved until the landmark is located and provisionally saved by clicking on the left mouse and confirmed by clicking on the right mouse. Landmark identification sometimes requires the use of a horizontal or vertical projected line. For instance, measurement of the width of the face ...
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Citations
... Therefore, both human competencies and artificial intelligence are increasingly deployed. Regarding artificial intelligence, information technology has to take into account a wide range of requirements to develop a software of human face processing yielding high levels of accuracy (Davis et al., 2010). However, a recent pilot study at Berlin Südkreuz train station revealed that the current face processing software lacks to perform sufficiently and remained beyond expectations. ...
In the present study, we investigated whether police officers’ performance in searching for unfamiliar faces in a video-based real-world task is predicted by laboratory-based face processing tests that are typically used to assess individual differences in face processing abilities. Specifically, perceptual performance in the field was operationalized via the identification of target individuals in self-made close-circuit television (CCTV) video tapes. Police officers’ abilities in the laboratory were measured by the Cambridge Face Memory Test long form (CFMT+). We hypothesized that the CFMT+ predicts individual differences in the CCTV task performance. A total of N = 186 police officers of the Rhineland-Palatinate State Police participated in the study (i.e., N = 139 novice and advanced cadets with either 3 months, 15 months or 24 months of pre-service experience; N = 47 experienced police officers with three years of pre-service experience and at least two years of full-service experience, who participated in the assessment center of the special police forces, specifically the surveillance and technical unit). Results revealed that the CFMT+ explained variance in the CCTV task. In sample 1, CFMT+ scores predicted hits, but not false alarms. In contrast, in sample 2, CFMT+ scores were correlated with both hits and false alarms. From a theoretical perspective, we discuss factors that might explain CCTV task performance. From a practical perspective, we recommend that personnel selection processes investigating individual differences of police officers’ face processing abilities should comprise of two steps. At first, laboratory-based tests of face processing abilities should be applied. Subsequently, to validate laboratory-based individual differences in face processing abilities, we recommend that work samples such as CCTV tasks from the field should be added.
... 2,[11][12][13] These limitations include camera quality, image resolution, ambient lighting, and the suspect's movement and spatial orientation in relation to the camera. 3,[12][13][14][15] In addition, many authors have discussed the possibility that facial expressions can significantly influence the facial image comparison process 12,[16][17][18] and whether these expressions are reproducible, 19,20 especially under spontaneous conditions, when their reproducibility might limit facial movement analysis. 18 For all these reasons, photo-anthropometry has not been recommended as a facial image comparison method. ...
Purpose:
Using images in the facial image comparison process poses a challenge for forensic experts due to limitations such as the presence of facial expressions. The aims of this study were to analyze how morphometric changes in the face during a spontaneous smile influence the facial image comparison process and to evaluate the reproducibility of measurements obtained by digital stereophotogrammetry in these situations.
Materials and methods:
Three examiners used digital stereophotogrammetry to obtain 3-dimensional images of the faces of 10 female participants (aged between 23 and 45 years). Photographs of the participants' faces were captured with their faces at rest (group 1) and with a spontaneous smile (group 2), resulting in a total of 60 3-dimensional images. The digital stereophotogrammetry device obtained the images with a 3.5-ms capture time, which prevented undesirable movements of the participants. Linear measurements between facial landmarks were made, in units of millimeters, and the data were subjected to multivariate and univariate statistical analyses using Pirouette® version 4.5 (InfoMetrix Inc., Woodinville, WA, USA) and Microsoft Excel® (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, USA), respectively.
Results:
The measurements that most strongly influenced the separation of the groups were related to the labial/buccal region. In general, the data showed low standard deviations, which differed by less than 10% from the measured mean values, demonstrating that the digital stereophotogrammetry technique was reproducible.
Conclusion:
The impact of spontaneous smiles on the facial image comparison process should be considered, and digital stereophotogrammetry provided good reproducibility.
... [5]). This standardised setting requirement primarily results from the reliance of these systems on facial anthropometric information to accurately compare faces [6,7]. Despite recent attempts at standardisation [8], photo-anthropometry, the application of facial anthropometry to image comparison, has been demonstrated as unable to discern target individuals for both identification and exclusion [9,10]. ...
Between the ever-increasing availability of surveillance evidence and expert-based forensic facial comparison being considered admissible in court, confirming its validity is paramount. Facial comparison is most commonly conducted using morphological analysis (MA), a largely untested feature-based approach. This study aimed at validating the current recommended practice of MA in both standardised and suboptimal surveillance samples. Face pools of 175 South African males were compiled with a series of facial photographs, using images from the Wits Face Database. The first 75 face pools consisted of wildtype (unstandardised) high-quality target photographs, while the remaining 100 face pools consisted of suboptimal closed-circuit television (CCTV) target images. Target images were compared to high-quality standardised photographs. Face pools were analysed using the Facial Identification Scientific Working Group’s guidelines and feature list. Confusion matrices were used to determine the performance of MA in each cohort. MA was found highly accurate (chance-corrected accuracy (CCA): 99.1%) and reliable (κ = 0.921) in the photographic sample and less accurate (CCA: 82.6%) and reliable (κ = 0.743), in the CCTV sample. Higher false-positive and false-negative rates were noted for the CCTV sample, with the majority of errors resulting in false-negative outcomes. The decreased performance in the CCTV sample was attributed to various factors including image quality, angle of recording and lighting. Other studies testing facial comparison identified lower accuracies and reliability across various conditions. Better performance was found here and in other studies that included some form of facial feature list, reinforcing the importance of using a systematic facial feature list.
... The facial comparison -or mapping -involves the description of the characteristics of a population, as well as the identification of individuals, and is applicable as evidence in various societies around the world (Akhter et al., 2013;Davis; Valeitine; Davis, 2010;Roelofse;Steyn;Becker, 2008;Ogawa et al., 2015). Studies seeking to evaluate facial growth or estimate age from landmarks in frontal photographs have achieved positive results with this method (Cattaneo et al., 2012;Borges et al., 2018;Machado et al., 2017), although they emphasize that each population requires a specific approach (Cattaneo et al., 2012;Machado et al., 2019). ...
... The facial comparison -or mapping -involves the description of the characteristics of a population, as well as the identification of individuals, and is applicable as evidence in various societies around the world (Akhter et al., 2013;Davis; Valeitine; Davis, 2010;Roelofse;Steyn;Becker, 2008;Ogawa et al., 2015). Studies seeking to evaluate facial growth or estimate age from landmarks in frontal photographs have achieved positive results with this method (Cattaneo et al., 2012;Borges et al., 2018;Machado et al., 2017), although they emphasize that each population requires a specific approach (Cattaneo et al., 2012;Machado et al., 2019). ...
Photoanthropometry quantify the facial proportions of an individual facilitating the comparison of facial patterns for human identification. The coordinates and vertical distances in pixels of the photoanthropometric landmarks on images of the same individual in frontal and profile views were analyzed and compared. A total of 116 pairs of photographs of Brazilian individuals were evaluated. The photographs were adjusted in size and rotation, and marked in the software Two-dimensional Forensic Facial Analysis System. For each face, 16 landmarks were considered: glabella (g), nasion (n), ectocanthion (ec), pronasale (prn), subnasale (sn), alare (al), cheilion (ch), upper lip (ls), lower lip (li), stomion (sto), labiomental (lm), gnathion (gn), superaurale (sa), subaurale (sba), postaurale (pa) and upper ear lobe (slb); the x- and y-coordinates of each landmark were obtained. Twenty-seven vertical distances between the points were proposed, which were measured by subtracting the values of the y-coordinate. The data were analyzed descriptively and inferentially using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Mann-Whitney test (α=5%). The mean age of the sample was 25.9 years (± 4.7), and 50.9% (n=59) were males. When the coordinates were evaluated, a low correlation was obtained between the images (ICC<0.4). Of the 27 proposed measures, 77.7% (n=21) indicated agreement between the images in the two views (p>0.05). A comparison of ls-g, sa-ec, pa-ec, slb-ec, sba-sa and slb-sa showed disagreement between the images. Therefore, there is agreement between the facial measures in the frontal and lateral images, except for ls-g and for the distances between the ear landmarks.
... As they have been also described as a useful tool for the exclusion of suspects in crime scene investigation [2], photographs of the ear can also be used in the post mortem identification as it is a body region that has individualizing characteristics that can remain preserved for some time after death [3][4][5], although its application depends on the quality of the material available for analysis [6][7][8][9][10]. ...
Objective
This research aimed to test the reproducibility and applicability of the human identification method using photographs of the ears proposed by Cameriere et al. (2011) in a Brazilian sample.
Materials and Methods
Photographs of both ears of 115 participants were captured and evaluated by three different examiners. The data obtained were submitted to Kendall's Agreement Coefficient to assess interobserver agreement, in addition to descriptive statistics to assess the proportions of the areas of each ear. The Wilcoxon test was applied to determine the similarity of the proportions of the ear. To test the ability to identify a person based on the parameters of the ear, the k-dimensional tree algorithm was used.
Results
There was a high interobserver agreement, and the size and proportions obtained between the ears were similar, except for helix proportion. Thus, most of the parameters of an ear can be identified based on the parameters of the opposite ear, and that the parameters associated with the algorithm used can classify and group a set of ears based on the similarity of their measurements.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that the method proved to be reproducible and useful as a method of human identification in a Brazilian sample.
... Os artigos (Davis et al., 2010;Kleinberg et al., 2007) reportam situações nas quais os métodos são agrupados a fim de obter um resultado em comum. Apresentar-se convincente, comprobatório e conduzir veracidade é o que é buscado por esses estudos a qualquer intuito de resposta sobre questionamentos com fins forenses. ...
... Os resultados dos artigosde Cummaudo et al. (2014),Davis et al. (2010), Galvanék et. al. (2015,e Introna et. ...
O crescimento exponencial de crimes na internet, como a pedofilia, demanda muitas vezes a estimativa da idade a partir das imagens faciais dos indivíduos envolvidos. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a aplicabilidade do método da fotoantropometria para estimativa de idade com fins forenses por meio de uma revisão sistemática. Realizaram-se buscas nas bases PUBMED, SCOPUS, The Cochrane Library, Web of Science, LILACS, CAPES e SIGLE, utilizando MeSH e termos livres com base na estratégia PICO (P: população; I: intervenção; C: comparação; e O: desfecho). Incluíram-se estudos que avaliaram imagens de indivíduos por fotoantropometria para estimativa de idade forense. Procedeu-se extração dos dados e avaliação da qualidade metodológica (QUADAS-2). De 2809 artigos identificados, 37 foram selecionados inicialmente por abordar análise facial através de fotoantropometria. Após leitura na íntegra, identificou-se que 9 estudos que utilizaram o método para estimativa de idade. Com amostra proveniente de 9 nacionalidades diferentes, 5 artigos tiveram suas marcações fotoantropométricas realizadas manualmente, enquanto 4 foram automatizadas. Todos os estudos tiveram agrupamentos de idade próprios para determinação das mesmas, não havendo coincidências entre eles. O método da fotoantropometria foi considerado eficaz para estimativa de idade em 5 artigos, enquanto 4 reportam que mais estudos são necessários para minimizar erros. Somente 3 estudos apresentaram baixo risco de viés por utilizarem padrão de referência aplicável e confiável. A fotoantropometria apresenta aplicabilidade limitada na estimativa de idade forense, havendo evidência questionável acerca de seu uso, devido aos riscos de viés presentes nos estudos.
... This method consists in the bidimensional analysis of measurements, angles and proportions of human anthropological features from photographs guided by Dynamics of human facial aging through photoanthropometric analysis and quadratic modeling from. .. anatomically positioned landmarks (DAVIS;VALENTINE;DAVIS, 2010;ISÇAN;HELMER, 1993;KLEINBERG;VANEZIS;BURTON, 2007;MORETON;MORLEY, 2011). As most of the facial photographs are usually taken without scales, the photoanthropometric analysis may be performed by associating the ratio of two measurements and their unification in a single index (BORGES et al., 2018;FLORES et al., 2019;MACHADO et al., 2017). ...
... This method consists in the bidimensional analysis of measurements, angles and proportions of human anthropological features from photographs guided by Dynamics of human facial aging through photoanthropometric analysis and quadratic modeling from. .. anatomically positioned landmarks (DAVIS;VALENTINE;DAVIS, 2010;ISÇAN;HELMER, 1993;KLEINBERG;VANEZIS;BURTON, 2007;MORETON;MORLEY, 2011). As most of the facial photographs are usually taken without scales, the photoanthropometric analysis may be performed by associating the ratio of two measurements and their unification in a single index (BORGES et al., 2018;FLORES et al., 2019;MACHADO et al., 2017). ...
This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of facial aging from photographs of individuals in different age groups and establish a pattern of facial growth. The sample consisted of digital photographs standardly taken from 1273 Brazilians aged between 2 and 24 years and equally distributed by sex into 12 specific age groups (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 and 24 years). SAFF-2D® (Forensic Facial Analysis System, Brazilian Federal Police, Brazil) software package was used for positioning 28 landmarks on each photograph. Two-hundred and eight measurements were established between the landmarks. Photoanthropometric Indicators (PAI) of facial morphological alterations were obtained from the relations of facial measurements with a fixed reference (diameter of the iris). Non-transformed linear, quadratic and log-linear models were tested to screen the best approach to describe the facial growth with aging in females and males. The quadratic model reached the best outcomes in females (R2 <73.2%, mean: 52.14% ± 0.15) and males (R2 <80.8%, mean: 60.87% ± 0.15). Most of the PAI (>99.04%) were statistically associated with age in females and males (p<0.05). Vertical facial alterations were the most evident over the time, especially the height of the human face (p<0.05). Data extraction and treatment performed with the photoanthropometric analysis and the quadratic statistical model described the dynamics of facial growth by tackling facial allometry.
... Essas linhas atuam como regiões de referência e permitem fazer as medições partindo de uma referência interna, conforme Figura 39 em que a largura da face foi medida considerando o lábio superior localizado no ponto 13 como referência. Partindo disso, uma linha paralela foi conectada aos olhos para identificar a borda do rosto na altura vertical (pontos 14 e 15).Com essas identificações, o sistema faz a exportação automática de um total de 62 medidas (angulares e de distâncias completas e em pixels) para um banco de dados.Os pontos considerados transitórios, tais como as sobrancelhas, são sempre marcados com a letra T (na Figura 39, em vermelho PT 11) para tornar claro que são pontos facilmente modificáveis e não devem ser considerados como características confiáveis no reconhecimento, já que no caso de a pessoa analisada ser infratora, ela pode mudar a aparência para não ser reconhecida(DAVIS, VALENTINE, DAVIS, 2010). ...
... Análise foto-antropométrica de reconhecimento facial por meio do sistema Digital Face.Fonte:Davis, Valentine, Davis (2010).Identificação por sobreposição fotográficaEste método de identificação é também conhecido como método de Piacentino ou método crânio-foto-comparativo e consiste na identificação individual a partir da demonstração fotográfica por meio da sobreposição de fotos tiradas em vida da pessoa, sobre a foto do esqueleto do crânio. No entanto, ressalta-se que este método não apresenta grande segurança, sendo necessário o uso de mais métodos de identificação para assegurar a veracidade das conclusões.Havendo a possibilidade de recuperar a dentição superior com o crânio e a fotografia da pessoa sorrindo com os dentes visíveis, utiliza-se o formato e a posição dos dentes como critérios para uma identificação. ...
... In recent decades, the increasingly widespread use of digital imaging devices has highlighted the necessity of bringing its precepts to indirect, 2D-image contexts. Starting from the assumption that all FPA-based analyses (e.g., establishment of measures, angles, ratios, and indexes) rely on the previous determination of landmarks, evaluating the particular variation regarding their positioning is a necessary step for its safe and reliable application (1,2,12,13). ...
Positioning landmarks in facial photo-anthropometry (FPA) applications remains today a highly variable procedure, as traditional cephalometric definitions are used as guidelines. Herein, a novel landmark-positioning approach, specifically adapted for FPA applications, is introduced and, in particular, assessed against the conventional cephalometric definitions for the analysis of 16 landmarks on ten frontal images by two groups of examiners (with and without professional knowledge of anatomy). Results showed that positioning reproducibility was significantly better using the novel method. Indeed, in contrast to the classic approach, very low landmark dispersions were observed for both groups of examiners, which were usually below the strictest clinical standards (i.e., 0.575 mm). Furthermore, the comparison between the two groups of examiners highlighted higher dispersion consistencies, which supported a higher robustness. Thus, the use of an adapted landmark-positioning approach proved to be highly advantageous in FPA analysis and future work in this field should consider adopting similar methodologies.
... Considering the individuality of ear morphology (8,19,27), we expected landmarks related to the ear to be highly reliable. However, most ear landmarks used in this study (the superaurale, otobasion superius, postaurale, and subaurale) revealed below medium reliability in all three resolutions. ...
