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The paper analyses with a case study the use of a widely applied normative concept of polycentricity as spatial imaginary. The case study of Helsinki City Plan and the conflict over its city-boulevard scheme draws on qualitative content analysis of planning documents and expert interviews. It demonstrates the instrumental role of multiple interpret...
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Context 1
... By drawing on qualitative content analysis of planning documents and expert interviews, we aim to explain the conflict through the different and -as we aim to reveal -discordant interpretations of polycentricity that operationalize it as a planning goal at different planning scales. Without referring to city-regional polycentricity directly (ESPON 1.1.1, 2005), the Helsinki City Plan imposes a certain city-regional structure. It presents an interpretation of polycentricity, which co- aligns, to a degree, with the functional interpretation of polycentricity at the city-regional scale. On the other hand, regarding morphological interpretation, the boulevardisation idea in the plan advances ...
Context 2
... Finnish governance system consists of the national government, 18 regions, and around 300 local authorities. Consequently, a sole administrative body does not govern the Greater Helsinki city region which, with its 14 local authorities, forms a part of the broader Helsinki-Uusimaa region (Figure 1). The responsibility of land use planning lies, accordingly, with the regional and local level, and the statutory land use planning system involves three planning levels in a hier- archically binding order: regional land use plan, local master plan and local detailed plan (local authorities may also draft a joint local master plan). ...
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Citations
... At almost 1.8 million people in population, the GHR encompasses almost 1/3 of Finland's total population (Official Statistics of Finland-OSF, 2018). The spatial form of the GHR is distinctly polycentric, or multi-nucleic, (Granqvist et al., 2019;Söderström, et al., 2015). The GHR contains the following two (2) sub-centers within its conurbation: Espoo and Vantaa (See Fig. 1). ...
Urbanization changes the landscape and fragments spatial structures including greenspaces across much of the world and Europe. The resultant impacts and morphological characteristics are understudied within peri-urban regions of cities. This study analyzed the spatial qualities and relationship among peri-urban greenspaces, green structure, and polycentric urban form within the Greater Helsinki Region of Finland. Results illustrate the existing ‘Green Fingers’ have impacted urban development patterns. Though the Region includes many fragmented greenspaces, an overall interconnected and coherent intermixed green structure remains. Greenstructures and polycentric regions face continued threats; managing the growth of peri-urban regions is critical to maintaining a greenstructure’s multiple benefits to humans and nature across the globe.
... The master plan 2002 increased innercity densification by transforming the vast port areas into housing (Tiitu et al., 2021). In 2016, Helsinki municipality pursued a polycentric city plan, aiming for improved rail transport and land use along existing highways (Granqvist et al., 2019). ...
Urban areas are dynamic systems, in which different infrastructural, social and economic subsystems continuously co-evolve. As such, disruptions in one system can propagate to another. However, open challenges remain in (i) assessing the long-term implications of change for resilience and (ii) understanding how resilience propagates throughout urban systems over time. Despite the increasing reliance on data in smart cities, few studies empirically investigate long-term urban co-evolution using data-driven methods, leading to a gap in urban resilience assessments. This paper presents an approach that combines Getis-ord Gi* statistical and correlation analyses to investigate how cities recover from crises and adapt by analysing how the spatial patterns of urban characteristics and their relationships changed over time. We illustrate our approach through a study on Helsinki’s road infrastructure, socioeconomic system and built-up area from 1991 to 2016, a period marked by a major socioeconomic crisis. By analysing this case study, we provide insights into the co-evolution over more than two decades, thereby addressing the lack of longitudinal studies on urban resilience.
... At almost 1.8 million people in the population, the GHR encompasses almost 1/3 of Finland's total population (Official Statistics of Finland -OSF, 2018). The spatial form of the GHR is distinctly polycentric, or multi-nucleic (Granqvist et al., 2019;Söderström, et al., 2015). The GHR contains the following two (2) sub-centres within its conurbation: Espoo and Vantaa (see Fig. 1). ...
Urbanisation changes the landscape and fragments spatial structures including greenspaces across much of the world and Europe. The resultant impacts and morphological characteristics are understudied within peri-urban regions of cities. This study analysed the spatial qualities and relationship among peri-urban greenspaces, green structure, and urban form within the Greater Helsinki Region of Finland. Results illustrate how the existing ‘Green Fingers’ have impacted urban development patterns. Though the region includes many fragmented greenspaces, an overall interconnected and coherent intermixed green structure remains. This spatial component faces continued threats; managing the growth of peri-urban regions is critical to maintaining a green structure’s functional and morphological benefits.
... In city-regional transport system planning, though, the results have been somewhat encouraging. This is largely due to an agreement policy initiated by the state, committing the municipalities to subsidised housing policy measures in exchange for the state's transport infrastructure investments (Granqvist et al. 2019;Duman et al. 2022). ...
In the face of the climate crisis, cities have committed to ambitious sustainability targets. The UN Agenda 2030 and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a globally shared language for decision-makers and policymakers regarding their sustainability objectives. Espoo, Finland's second-largest city, has become a pioneer in implementing the Agenda, not least due to its recent nomination as 'Europe's most sustainable city'. This article investigates the use of the Agenda in strategic governance in Espoo with the aim to identify challenges and opportunities of SDG localisation. Although the Agenda has affected many aspects of policymaking in Espoo and ambitions have been high to shine as an SDG pioneer, a systematic integration of sustainability concerns into policymaking is not yet achieved. Moreover, there is a need to question the reliance of the Agenda framework on the ecological modernisation paradigm, which does not see economic growth and ecological sustainability at odds.
... Rumah merupakan salah satu hak asasi manusia dan karenanya setiap warga negara berhak untuk hidup dan mendapatkan lingkungan hidup yang baik dan sehat sesuai dengan amanat Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2011 tentang Perumahan dan Permukiman (Granqvist, 2019). Pembangunan dan kawasan pemukiman selalu menghadapi masalah lahan, terutama di perkotaan, dan juga negara adalah negara penghasil pangan berkelanjutan yang secara hukum dilindungi oleh Undang-Undang No. 41 Tahun 2009 dan secara administratif dimasukkan ke dalam RTRW baik untuk daerah provinsi maupun kota (Rose, 2020). ...
Indonesia as an agricultural country is a country rich in agriculture. Land is a very important part of everyday life, the main function of land is as a place to live, apart from that land can be used for plantations, industry and many other uses such as social functions. As settlements become increasingly dense and more land is converted into housing and settlements, the amount of land is decreasing, the problems arising from land conversion activities are very worrying, so this case is very concerning. This research uses a statutory and conceptual approach with a normative juridical research type. The conversion of rice fields into housing in Jember Regency is based on Jember Regency Regional Regulation Number 1 of 2015 concerning Jember Regency Spatial Planning for 2015-2035. Jember Regency is one of the administrative regions of East Java Province. Most of the Jember Regency area is lowland, with an average land height of 83 meters above sea level and is an area that is quite fertile and very suitable for the development of agricultural commodities and plantations, so it is known as an area or food barn and a country's foreign exchange earner in the agricultural sector. East Java Province. However, agricultural land in Jember Regency has experienced many changes, characterized by increasingly narrow agricultural land. The narrowing of agricultural land in Jember Regency is due to housing construction which is increasing every year. The conversion of land in agricultural areas not only results in rice yields, but many other productions have to be sacrificed.
... In ten designated city-regions, the state collaborates with municipalities to establish regional agreements, so called MAL agreements Granqvist et al., 2019;Mäntysalo et al., 2022), which address land use, housing and transportation 1 . The MAL planning process is established to promote balanced development, enhance regional cooperation, and ensure coordinated decision-making in land use and transportation matters. ...
Drawing on examples from the Nordic countries, this article aims to explore the practical application of strategic policy and planning instruments and approaches that facilitate the integration of land use and transport planning and promote sustainable policy measures through collaboration among stakeholders across various governance levels. This research applies a qualitative research design including literature research, interviews, and workshops involving practitioners from the five Nordic countries. In this paper, we present an overview of the planning structure in the Nordic countries, including institutions that govern land use and transport planning. We identify different approaches to bridge the gap between land use and transport planning, such as the Finger Plan in Denmark, MAL in Finland, Concept Studies in Norway, and Strategic Choice of Measures in Sweden. Many of the examples employ informal collaborative approaches among authorities to form a shared vision and seek consensus on a combination of policy measures and actions. The paper examines collaborative approaches in relation to regulatory planning and discusses the role of these processes in advancing integrated land use and transport planning and fostering sustainable urban development.
... This included asking, "What motivated cities to opt for pioneering new transport technologies?", and "What is the post-implementation experience with such innovations?". According to Granqvist et al. [18], the overall goal of a polycentric agglomeration was shared between the core city (Helsinki) and the 13 surrounding suburban municipalities. While there is no statutory body for the metropolitan area as such and inter-municipal collaboration remains largely voluntary, the polycentric vision had also been enshrined in strategic planning documents by the larger regional administration (Helsinki-Uusimaa) as well as non-statutory plans by an alliance of local governments [19]. ...
... While there is no statutory body for the metropolitan area as such and inter-municipal collaboration remains largely voluntary, the polycentric vision had also been enshrined in strategic planning documents by the larger regional administration (Helsinki-Uusimaa) as well as non-statutory plans by an alliance of local governments [19]. However, interpretations of what exactly was meant by polycentricity differed between planning actors/tiers of government and led to policy controversy that, in 2018, was resolved by a court decision removing four of the original seven "boulevard" corridors from the urban strategy [18]. ...
... In this process, the concept of polycentricity had thus become what Granqvist et al. [18] (p 741) describe as a "pacifying spatial imaginary" that planning actors could galvanise around in discursive terms while concealing its inherent ambiguity and the weakness of institutions tasked with its operationalisation, but fell short of an "integrated planning strategy" that could guide the resolution of practical disagreements on detail and implementation [18]. ...
Increasing calls for zero-carbon cities invite transformative solutions for people and places within our cities around the world. Key to the transformation is cities and regions shifting in mobility away from fossil-fuel based car-oriented solutions. The paper investigates a range of case studies where “tram-based boulevards” have been planned or implemented to provide such opportunities. The case studies share a common broader policy objective: to transform the car-oriented or car-saturated areas to an intensified urban template based on a critical presence of dedicated mid-tier transit infrastructure and active transport. “Trams”, or mid-tier, mid-capacity transit when combined with Transit oriented development (TOD) along whole corridors can provide transformative pathways towards zero-carbon outcomes as well as multiple, strong urban benefits. However, many successful or instructive examples of this practice from non-English speaking countries, particularly in Europe, are underdocumented in the international literature. The paper addresses this gap by investigating opportunities and challenges evident in a range of European case studies. These are explored for insight towards policy learning particularly in New World cities seeking to transform into a zero-carbon and more transit-oriented template: How can decision-makers avoid repeating the identified pitfalls, and instead focus on emulating the successful approaches and outcomes? We conclude the need for recognition of the inherent synergies between transport and land use settings in any endeavour, and their translation into policy priorities in both fields of planning. We also conclude the importance of decision makers proactively identifying and critically appraising specific opportunities for change, concerning funding, technology, public opinion, stakeholder alliances or market dynamics, and capitalising on them at suitable moments in time.
... In light of these challenges, it is recommended to conduct theoretical and empirical studies with more explanatory approaches. Polycentricity should be viewed as a dynamic system, and a simultaneous and integrated assessment of economic performance, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability will help determine whether it is a win-win, win-lose, or lose-lose situation (Granqvist et al., 2019). Adopting a systemic approach will clarify the dimensions of the issue, including mechanisms and processes. ...
... This is done without communication with each other, without considering the role of micro-level decisions of actors (public and private), and without communicating with regional governance institutions (if any) (Van den Berghe et al., 2022). At the intermediate level, since the jurisdiction of a polycentric structure includes at least one province and several cities, different actors (province and each city separately) make urban development decisions based on their interests and goals (Geppert, 2009;Granqvist et al., 2019;Hendriks, 2006;Schmitt, 2013;Spaans & Zonneveld, 2016;Havlík, 2022;Kloosterman & Lambregts, 2007). Despite the widespread acceptance of the principle of " cooperation," ...
Abstract
This article presents a systematic review of empirical studies on polycentric spatial structures at a regional scale in order to assess their effectiveness as prescriptive and normative models in spatial planning. The results show that very few studies have emphasised primarily the positive effects of polycentricity, while a large number have evaluated the performance of non-polycentric (monocentric) structures more positively. Our study shows that evaluating the effectiveness of polycentricity as a normative model is both theoretically and empirically challenging, and that polycentricity is still the subject of a research agenda with hypotheses that need to be tested. The findings indicate that polycentricity is not the superior model it has been frequently advertised as and that its effectiveness is significantly influenced by a range of factors relating to its political foundation, weak theoretical positioning, ambiguous conceptualisation, context dependence, and highly variable governance frameworks. The study recommends that scientific theorising of polycentricity should be aligned with close scrutiny of the relevant contexts to overcome its idealistic nature and lack of adaptability. The article cautions planners and policymakers against a sweeping promotion of polycentric development, as the implementation of this concept is not necessarily associated with fostering economic performance, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability.
Introduction
Over the last two decades, the utilisation of the concepts of “polycentrism”1 and “polycentric development” has noticeably increased in the strategies and plans of spatial development (Meijers, 2008a, Wang et al., 2022). These concepts have been recognised as key elements and served as both a scientific analytical framework for examining real-world phenomena and the politically important parts of normative goals and perspectives in spatial development policies (Harrison and Hoyler, 2014, Lambregts, 2009, Derudder et al., 2022, Hall and Pain, 2006, Taylor et al., 2008). To achieve objectives such as enhancing economic performance, promoting social cohesion, and advancing environmental sustainability, these concepts have been integrated into spatial development policies and plans at different levels (Burger and Meijers, 2012, Zhang et al., 2022). Historical recovery shows that the emergence of the concept of polycentricity in the 1990 s to promote the benefits of “European integration” is a significant departure from traditional approaches in spatial planning. In particular, the European Spatial Development Perspective Document (ESDP) introduced a new framework for considering the spatial organisation of cities and regions. ESDP advocates for the first time a balanced spatial structure that fosters cooperation and complementarity between cities and regions. This normative interpretation from polycentricity made it the most desirable model of spatial structure and a leading principle in achieving balanced regional development throughout the EU, making it the main objective of EU regional policy. Today, polycentric conflict remains a central theme in EU territorial cohesion policy, and its popularity has spread even beyond Europe. This concept in normative interpretation promises to reduce spatial inequalities, combat the negative effects of excessive concentration and social-spatial polarization, and increase the competitiveness and efficiency of economic production regardless of the spatial context. However, the popularity of the concept of polycentricity has led to its acceptance in planning circles, and its vague and ambiguous meanings have caused confusion and uncertainty in the conceptualization of polycentric development in the planning apparatus. Simultaneous polycentricity has quickly attracted the attention of academic circles and has become an important research topic. This issue has caused controversy between the scientific and political discourse of polycentricity. On one side, the absence of robust empirical evidence has led some researchers to concentrate on the potential and theoretical aspects of polycentricity rather than empirical facts and theories (Groth et al., 2011). On the other, politicians have established the foundation for the practical introduction of these concepts into countries' spatial planning documents by giving their approval. Planners and politicians, inspired by the adoption of polycentricity as a role model in certain regions, have taken active measures to implement it in other contexts through public intervention. Some researchers adopt a more cautious viewpoint to the claimed positive functions of polycentricity, opting to thoroughly evaluate the empirical evidence before reaching any conclusions. Viewing it as a matter of concern, Davoudi (2007), Meijers and Sandberg (2008), and Li et al. (2022a) have expressed their criticism of the political endorsement of polycentricity as a panacea for all problems. They posit that polycentricity may simply serve as a placebo, which could mean anything and potentially act as a pathogen, exacerbating existing problems. While polycentricity theoretically asserts to improve economic performance, enhance social cohesion, and promote environmental sustainability, these claims have yet to be substantiated through empirical evidence (Davoudi, 2003, Manole et al., 2020, Parr, 2004, Rauhut, 2017; B. A. S. Waterhout et al., 2005; W. Li, Sun, et al., 2018; Natalia & Heinrichs, 2020).
Despite researchers' involvement, the absence of theoretical perspectives to support polycentric development as a normative policy stance remains an issue. Its effects are also uncertain from an empirical viewpoint (Agarwal et al., 2012, Rauhut, 2017, Vandermotten et al., 2008). The questionability of polycentric development's multi-objective nature as a spatial planning key concept is apparent. The examination of the social, economic, and environmental impacts of polycentricity, including both potential advantages and drawbacks, has been insufficiently addressed or overlooked. The significance of this issue lies in the recognition of polycentricity as a desirable and normative model for spatial development, as it has the potential to serve as a guiding principle for political intervention (Cheng and Shaw, 2018, Rauhut, 2017, Waite, 2023). Camagni and Capello (2004) maintain that polycentricity can only be regarded as a new paradigm in spatial sciences when its exact meaning is fully defined, its theoretical economic logic is justified, and its empirical characteristics are distinguished from traditional spatial realities and processes. Davoudi (2003) believes that failing to promote and understand polycentricity as a model for spatial development will result in it becoming just another “idea” and not a sustainable model. Thus, to ensure its sustainability, polycentric development must undergo testing to determine its usefulness and validity (Meijers, 2008a). The idea of polycentricity is intricate, just like TV series that need a complex blend of strong storytelling, engaging characters, high production standards, skilled actors and agents, innovation, effective marketing, and critical acclaim to be successful. Polycentricity is akin to TV series in the sense that various factors are crucial and must be present for it to succeed. Consequently, supporting polycentricity based solely on idealistic and positive objectives is inadequate, as weak links in any of the necessary factors may lead to its failure. Thus, to maximise the potential of polycentric development in spatial planning, it's crucial to assess its implications and adopt well-informed versions of it instead of blindly copying it.
In the academic literature, the term “polycentric urban regions” (PURs) refers to a manifestation of the scaling of urban development and the formation of “regional urbanisation.” (Soja, 2015). These new spatial structures result from the merger of adjacent cities of similar size, which were previously separate but interlinked (Burger and Meijers, 2012, Meijers et al., 2018). PURs are characterised by a regional spatial structure in which multiple urban areas interact and cooperate (Brezzi & Veneri, 2015). These regions exhibit interdependent economies, labour markets, and shared infrastructures; thereby, they transform the constituent settlements into “overarching entities” through their connections (Liu et al., 2016). The prevalence of functional relationships between cities, such as the development of agglomeration economies and the absence of diseconomies associated with more concentrated forms of development, such as congestion and environmental pollution, contribute to the growing prominence of PURs. Additionally, the pursuit of more sustainable and balanced urban development across cities further supports the organisation of urban systems in a polycentric manner (Van den Berghe et al., 2022). Therefore, the promotion of PURs is seen as a means to improve economic performance, promote social cohesion, and enhance environmental sustainability.
The examination of polycentric urban structures on this scale has garnered attention from several researchers in the field. This has resulted in an increased focus on investigating the characteristics and impacts of such spatial structures. These evaluations offer a valuable contribution to the ongoing debate surrounding polycentric urban structures. However, the question of whether polycentricity is a desirable spatial structure remains unresolved, and obtaining answers to these fundamental and supplementary questions is crucial for informed political decision making (Li and Liu, 2018, Meijers and Burger, 2010, Zhang et al., 2017). In light of these considerations, the present study aims to systematically review the empirical evidence on polycentricity on a regional scale. It endeavours to answer two questions: 1) Does empirical evidence support the notions about the effectiveness of polycentric urban structures in terms of achieving their intended goals on a regional scale? 2) What factors influence the effectiveness of polycentricity as a prescriptive and normative model? To put it simply, this study's second question investigates the effectiveness of the prescriptive and normative model "polycentricity." Effectiveness in this sense is measured by how well the model achieves its predetermined goals and objectives in real-world scenarios. Evaluating the degree of effectiveness involves assessing the model's alignment with the values and requirements of stakeholders; how effectively it addresses the challenges and opportunities of the planning context; and how efficiently it achieves its intended outcomes. To put it in a different way, this study aims to make a novel contribution to the field by tackling two main objectives. First, it aims to explore the impact of polycentricity on economic performance, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Second, it conducts a critical evaluation of the factors that influence the effectiveness of polycentricity as a prescriptive and normative model in spatial planning. To this end, it conducts an in-depth examination of various perspectives to systematically outline and examine the potential of polycentricity to advance economic, social, and environmental progress, or alternatively, to determine why it may not be successful in doing so.
The study is structured as follows: Section 2 offers an overview of the literature review, followed by the explanation of the methodology in Section 3. Section 4 presents the analyses, which will be discussed in Section 5. Finally, Section 6 presents the conclusion.
Section snippets
Literature review
The concept of PURs can be viewed as a product of an ongoing global discourse among scholars in the fields of urban planning and geography, dating back several decades into the 20th century. It has been argued that the polycentric spatial structures are becoming the leading form of city-regions in the new millennium (Bartosiewicz and Marcinczak, 2022, Dieleman and Faludi, 1998, Kloosterman and Musterd, 2001, Phelps and Ozawa, 2003, Van Houtum and Lagendijk, 2001). Van Meeteren (2022) sheds
Material and methods
The study at hand sets out to gather empirical evidence of the effects of polycentricity and to evaluate the factors affecting the effectiveness of polycentricity as a prescriptive and normative model. This is accomplished through conducting a systematic literature review, which serves as the first endeavour to organise and consolidate the existing knowledge and to provide relevant insights to researchers, planners, and policymakers (Fink, 2014). The systematic literature review is a rigorous
Polycentricity and economic performance
The evaluations of polycentricity that are deemed most critical are often linked to economic performance. Theoretical logic suggests that transitioning from monocentricity to polycentricity in urban regions may lead to a higher economic performance, and researchers have attempted to establish this by constructing empirical evidence. To evaluate the impact of agglomeration economies on local labour productivity, most studies adopt models based on the Cobb-Douglas production function (Ciccone,
Discussion
This article aims to conduct a systematic review of the evaluations of polycentricity in the intercity (regional) scale and to critically analyse the factors affecting its effectiveness as a prescriptive and normative key model in spatial planning. The empirical studies in this field have analysed various aspects, including economic performance, environmental sustainability, social cohesion, and multi-objective evaluations. The selected studies were categorised into four groups: positive,
Conclusion
Contemporary spatial planning recognises polycentricity as a fundamental principle. Policymakers have emphasised the transformation of the concept of polycentricity from a mere descriptive and analytical model into a prescriptive and normative model aimed at promoting economic performance, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. With the objective of assessing the evaluation of polycentric spatial structures at the regional scale through empirical evidence and determining the factors
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hashem Dadashpoor: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Abbas Doorudinia: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft. Abolfazl Meshkini: Conceptualization, Writing − review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our sincere appreciation and respect to the esteemed editor, Karl Fischer and anonymous reviewers for their diligent and thorough review of our manuscript. Their invaluable guidance and constructive feedback have significantly improved the quality of our work.
Hashem Dadashpoor is an associate professor at Tarbiat Modares University, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning. His research interests include urban and regional planning, urban and regional studies, spatial planning, land use planning, and planning theory.
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... Urban alterations lead to the formation of different nodes around the metropolitan region. These nodes of human activity tend to connect with large or medium-sized cities that articulate the economic and social developments of suburban, periurban, and rural hinterlands (Granqvist et al. 2019;Jones and MacLeod 2004;Krehl and Siedentop 2019;Neuman and Hull 2009;Schmitt et al. 2015). This interaction between an urban core, semiurban, and rural hinterland is the city-region essence (Acuto et al. 2014;Hazel and McLean 2007). ...
The development and expansion of 20th-century urbanization have led to large-scale populated regions that did not exist prior to this era. City-region is a kind of 20-century large-scale concept recognized as the most advanced stage of urban development. Regardless of its long history, the concept of city-region does not enjoy a standard definition. In this vein, the present paper seeks to provide a suitable framework for the primary argument determining the city-region boundary. Indeed, understanding the boundary allows planners to study a precise area, resulting in refining the concept and meticulously planning. Therefore, as applied research, it is aimed to respond to the practical problem in spatial planning by expanding and developing the city-region's knowledge base. The paper has a mixed-method, using content analysis, the Structural Equation Model techniques, and Hot spot analysis. The results introduce six factors for determining the city-region's boundary, including economic self-sufficiency, community relation, regional competitiveness, balanced management, services and infrastructure capacities, and the space of flows. The research's flexible model allows planners to adjust it based on their field of study, inferring that the proposed model is utterly comprehensive; however, having access to different databases, scholars may encounter a challenge to adapt indicators. Accordingly, indicators should be customized based on general ones. In this study, the indicators are customized according to Iran's data sources, and the output framework is tested on the Tehran region that deals with inefficiencies in urban and regional planning.
... CPE adds a Marxian analysis of institution to a Foucauldian analysis of discourse, attempts to capture 'state power as the discursively and institutionally mediated condensation of a changing balance of forces' (Jessop and Oosterlynck, 2008), and traces how discourse and institution mutually shape (Jessop, 2009;Sum and Jessop, 2013). Empirical studies on the cultural political economy (Fuller, 2018;González et al., 2018;van Meeteren et al. 2016;Zhang, Xu and Chung, 2020;Deruytter and Derudder, 2019;Hincks, Deas and Haughton, 2017;Granqvist, Sarjamo and Mäntysalo, 2019;Planey, 2020;Mackinnon, 2020) focus on how the state uses economic discourse in mobilising resources and shaping urban space. ...
Concepts like 'creative city', 'world city', and 'eco city' arrive with loud celebration, but fade in just a few years. In recent years, 'smart city' has been a buzzword. As each fad emerges, urbanists debate its meaning and implications. However, why so many urban concepts circulate at all is rarely focused on. This study attempts to answer this question based on the Marxian view of the built environment as a fixed capital. We focus on the differences between the built environment and other types of fixed capital, and show how these differences render capital circulation in the built environment sector more fragile. We claim that such fragility cannot be fixed within the circuit of capital, so external intervention is necessary and deployment of catchy urban concepts is a resorted method of such intervention.
