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Location of stratigraphic columns and wells and stratigraphic regional sections listed in Table 2. Numbers along sections refer to stratigraphic transect labels (for details, see Sarmiento, 2001).
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Backstripping analysis and forward modeling of 162 stratigraphic columns and wells of the Eastern Cordillera (EC), Llanos, and Magdalena Valley shows the Mesozoic Colombian Basin is marked by five lithosphere stretching pulses. Three stretching events are suggested during the Triassic–Jurassic, but additional biostratigraphical data are needed to i...
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... stretching of finite duration in our study of tectonic subsidence and examine the possibility of differentiating between crustal and subcrustal stretching that occurred in the Colombian Basin throughout the Mesozoic. An extensive data set of 162 stratigraphic columns and wells from the EC, Magdalena Valley (MV), and Llanos Orientales (LLA) areas (Fig. 2, see references in table 2.1 of Sarmiento, 2001) extracted from the literature, as well as data from Ecopetrol, are ...
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... the UMV and during the late Coniacian-Santonian, deepening of the basin and relative tectonoeustatic level rise occurred (transition from inner shelf uppermost Villeta Group to middle shelf lower chert unit of the Olini Group; Etayo-Serna, 1994, Fig. ...
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... the fitting procedure, initial lithospheric configuration and thermal parameters are adopted as listed in Table 1. To fit the data, we assume that each observed phase of Basin compartment numbers as shown in Fig. 6. Location of each stratigraphic column identified by number shown in Fig. 2. a Numbers indicate Cretaceous subbasins shown in Fig. 6. b Stratigraphic column number shown in Fig. 2. c Modeled using Triassic and Jurassic actual or inferred stratigraphy. rapid tectonic subsidence should correspond to a stretching phase in the forward model. For these phases, we adopt a two-layered stretching model of the ...
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... configuration and thermal parameters are adopted as listed in Table 1. To fit the data, we assume that each observed phase of Basin compartment numbers as shown in Fig. 6. Location of each stratigraphic column identified by number shown in Fig. 2. a Numbers indicate Cretaceous subbasins shown in Fig. 6. b Stratigraphic column number shown in Fig. 2. c Modeled using Triassic and Jurassic actual or inferred stratigraphy. rapid tectonic subsidence should correspond to a stretching phase in the forward model. For these phases, we adopt a two-layered stretching model of the lithosphere (d " b) to obtain the highest degree of freedom. However, we prefer to use a uniform stretching ...
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... proto-Caribbean crust beneath the Farallon plate originated a magmatic arc. To the east, a passive margin distant from the magmatic arc prevailed in the eastern side of the Quebradagrande Basin and east of the paleo-Central Cordillera (Moreno and Pardo, 2003, their Fig. 7). If such (Linares, 1996). Location of seismic line is shown in Fig. 2. an interpretation is valid for the Berriasian-Hauterivian, the event may be the result of stretching in the study area, which produced a failed-rifted arm related to a major opening of the proto-Caribbean oceanic basin. However, the presence of some Early Cretaceous plutonic rocks in the Central Cordillera east of the Quebradagrande ...
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Citations
... The Early Cretaceous evolution of the UMB is characterized by an extensional tectonic regime associated with a global plate configuration from the separation of South America and Africa and the formation of southern Atlantic Ocean between them (Bajolet et al., 2022;Bayona et al., 2006;Ramos, 2010;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;Zapata et al., 2019Zapata et al., , 2020. During the Late Cretaceous, the compressional history of the Andean Orogeny began with the deformation of an ancestral 'Central Cordillera' and several intrabasin highs (Bayona, 2018;Sarmiento & Rangel, 2004). ...
... The tectonic events that led to the formation of the basin (Bayona et al., , 2020Cardona et al., 2020;Guerrero et al., 2021;Horton et al., 2010;Jaimes & de Freitas, 2006;Jaramillo et al., 2017;León et al., 2018;Montes et al., 2015Montes et al., , 2019Spikings et al., 2015;Villagómez et al., 2011;Zapata et al., 2019) are shown in chronological order. Additionally, the petroliferous system elements and the timing of migration are indicated (Roncancio & Martínez, 2011;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). Fault deformation indicates a maximum or approximate deformation timeline (Butler & Schamel, 1988;Caballero et al., 2013;Espitia et al., 2022;Mojica & Franco, 1990;Rosero et al., 2022). ...
... The age of these deformational events is not clear; however, they certainly are part of the polyphasic Meso-Cenozoic deformation that characterizes the Colombian Andes including the UMB (Espitia et al., 2022;Montes et al., 2019;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;Villagómez & Spikings, 2013;Zapata et al., 2020). Given the close spatial proximity, we considered that cataclastic bands and veins of P 2 and C1 domains, found in both fault zones can be correlated and probably formed during the Early Cretaceous extensional regime of the UMB, owing to their relatively higher temperature and hydrothermal nature ( Figure 11; Mora-Bohorquez et al., 2010;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). ...
The development of fractures and faults in plutonic rocks is significantly influenced by the primary fabrics and long-lived deformation history. Dike swarms and intersection damage zones are highly fractured and have the potential to form naturally fractured reservoirs of hydrocarbons and fluid pathways to zones of host rock matrix alteration.
... Three N-NE trending Cordilleras built the Andes of Colombia. The Eastern Cordillera, mainly constituted by a Proterozoic metamorphic basement covered by highly deformed Paleozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary sequences (Villamil, 1999;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). This cordillera is separated from the Central Cordillera by the Magdalena River Valley, which in turn consists of Permo-Triassic gneisses, migmatites and amphibolites (Martens et al., 2014) and Jurassic schists belts (Blanco-Quintero et al., 2014;Bustamante et al., 2017) intruded by Jurassic (Cochrane et al., 2014;Bustamante et al., 2016) and Cretaceous to Paleogene arc-related plutons respectively (Bayona et al., 2012;Bustamante et al., 2017). ...
With the imperative to diversify energy matrices and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, nations are actively exploring alternative sources of energy. In that sense, graphite, due to its role in lithium batteries, emerges as a pivotal component in the global energy transition. Governments, recognizing the strategic significance of certain minerals, compile lists of critical minerals to achieve energy autonomy. However, in the recent update of Colombia’s critical mineral list, noteworthy minerals such as lithium and graphite were overlooked. Despite the widespread presence of graphite along the Central Cordillera of Colombia, potentially extending into the Real Cordillera in Ecuador, its importance has remained largely unnoticed for years. This manuscript underscores the critical need to comprehensively characterize graphite occurrences in the Andes of Colombia. The manifestations of graphite suggest its potential significance in the pursuit of cleaner energy sources. This study aims to draw attention to the overlooked role of graphite, urging a reevaluation of its inclusion in Colombia’s critical minerals list to enhance the nation’s strategic positioning in the global shift towards sustainable energy solutions.
... The Villeta Group encompasses the main hydrocarbon source rocks of the UMVB; this sedimentary succession was deposited during a maximum marine flooding event in the Cenomanian (Fig. 2b;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;Sarmiento and Rangel, 2004). Source rocks consist of shales and limestones deposited in an anoxic environment, with an average of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) ranging from 1% to 4% (Sarmiento and Rangel, 2004). ...
Fractured basement hydrocarbon reservoirs are widely distributed worldwide in more than 30 basins, where volcanic and plutonic rocks have produced significant quantities of oil and gas. The Upper Magdalena Valley Basin (UMVB) is a mature and productive hydrocarbon basin located in the Colombian Andes. In this basin, plutonic and volcaniclastic Jurassic rocks are thrusted on top of Cretaceous to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, which constitute the petroleum system. Multi-scale fracture analysis together with petrography, petrophysics, and low-temperature thermochronology were conducted in and outcrop analogue of this basement to assess the structural evolution and investigate the main factors controlling the development of fracture properties in igneous basements. Thermochronological data indicate the occurrence of three exhumation events between the Early Cretaceous and Miocene, suggesting that most of the fracture networks within the Agrado-Betania hanging-wall were likely formed before hydrocarbon migration. Structural analysis has identified a fault damage zone with a width of approximately 746 m. Volcanic breccias and ash tuffs exhibit slightly higher areal fracture intensities (P21 > 30 m/m2) compared to plutonic and clastic rocks (P21 < 20 m/m2). Furthermore, the fracture networks exhibit good connectivity, with connection per branch (CB) values exceeding the 1.5 percolation threshold. Petrophysical calculations of matrix-fracture properties indicate high permeabilities (ranging from 1000mD to 10000000mD) and low porosities (<10%). The structural position and the diagenetic transformation of the volcanic rocks are the primary factors controlling fracture intensity in the igneous rocks within the Agrado-Betania fault. Results from this outcrop analogue also show that polyphasic structural histories and the burial history positively influence the quality of fractured basement reservoirs.
... In the early Cretaceous, the northwestern margin of South America was evolving in extensional settings, marked by the formation of the rifts of the equatorial Atlantic ocean and back-arc rifts from the Andean collision zone (Fig. 5; León et al., 2019;Zapata et al., 2019;Cardona et al., 2010). These back-arc rifts created depocenters in the Llanos Basin and the Putumayo-Oriente-Maranon sedimentary province (Fig. 1), where early Cretaceous marine sediments started to accumulated over the Jurassic volcanic and siliciclastic units ( Fig. 3; Kammer and Sánchez, 2006;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). ...
... In the early Cretaceous, tectonic activity intensified, driven by the movement along normal faults of the rifts, which produced kilometer-scale displacements. During this time, the Llanos Basin experienced notably higher rates of tectonic subsidence, providing evidence for increased tectonism (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). At the upper end of these large normal faults, kilometer-scale tectonic uplift of rifts shoulders and surface topography may have been generated (Buiter et al., 2023). ...
... Simultaneously, the tectonic subsidence rate of the basins experienced a significant reduction in the post-Cenomanian (post-95 Ma), suggesting a correlation between the decrease in extensional tectonic activity and the diminishing of exhumation rates and sediment production ( Fig. 5; Cooper et al., 1995). The subsidence mechanism changed at this time from fault-induced subsidence to thermal subsidence (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). Our interpretation suggests that the thermal subsidence process during the post-rift phase resulted in a less elevated Rio Negro-Juruena basement in the late Cretaceous compared to the early Cretaceous. ...
This study presents results from apatite fission track (AFT) thermochronology to investigate the thermal history and exhumation dynamics of the Rio Negro-Juruena basement, situated within the western Guiana Shield of the Amazonian Craton. AFT dating and associated thermal history modeling in South America has largely been restricted to the plate's margins (e.g., Andean active margin, Brazilian passive margin, and others). Our paper reports on low-temperature thermochronological data from the internal part of the western Guiana Shield for the first time. This area is part of a vast cratonic lithosphere that is generally thought to be stable and little influenced by Mesozoic and Ceno-zoic tectonics. Our data, however, show AFT central ages ranging from 79.1 ± 3.2 to 177.1 ± 14.8 Ma, with mean confined track lengths of ca. 12 µm. Contrary to what might be expected of stable cratonic shields, inverse thermal history modeling indicates a rapid basement cooling event in the early Cretaceous. This cooling is interpreted as a significant exhumation event of the basement that was likely driven by the coeval extensional tectonics associated with back-arc rifts in the Llanos and Putumayo-Oriente-Maranon basins. The extensional tectonics facilitated both basement uplift and subsidence of the adjoining basins, increasing erosional dynamics and consequent exhumation of the basement rocks. The tectonic setting shifted in the late Cretaceous from ex-tensional to contractional, resulting in reduced subsidence of the basins and consequential diminishing cooling rates of the Guiana Shield basement. Throughout the Cenozoic, only gradual, slow subsidence occurred in the study area due to regional flexure linked to the Andean orogeny. Comparative analysis with low-temperature thermochronology data from other west Gondwana cratonic segments highlights that ex-humation episodes are highly controlled by tectonic inheritance , lithospheric strength, and proximity to rift zones. This study underscores the complex interplay between tectonic events and the response of cratonic lithosphere over geological timescales and highlights extensional settings as an important geological context for craton exhumation.
... Colombiana al Límite Cenomaniano -Turoniano" (Morales et al., 1958;Guerrero & Sarmiento, 1996;Villamil, 1998;Guerrero et al., 2000;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;Gelvez et al., 2020;Torrado et al., 2020). Así mismo, la describen en dos segmentos, el Inferior se define como un conjunto de capas gruesas de calizas biomicritas duras con laminación plana paralela con presencia baja de concreciones discoidales de diagénesis temprana que deforman las biomicritas en la compactación. ...
Resumen Las litologías de la Formación La Luna son ampliamente reconocidas en Colombia por ser roca generadora de hidrocarburos, su génesis está asociada a condiciones ambientales deposicionales anóxicas que prevalecieron durante el Barremiano al Maestrichtiano a nivel global, conformada por una amplia secuencia de lutitas negras con gran cantidad de materia orgánica, intercalada con estratos calcáreos delgados, presentando un espesor total de hasta 600 m; se divide en tres Miembros (Salada, Pujamana y Galembo) cuya sección tipo se encuentra en el estado de Zulia, Venezuela. Su carácter estratigráfico y sedimentológico conlleva a que la Formación La Luna tenga un gran potencial como roca generadora y roca reservorio de yacimientos no convencionales. Esta investigación tiene una metodología basada en la búsqueda, recopilación y examinación exhaustiva de publicaciones realizadas a nivel nacional e internacional, relacionadas con estudios efectuados en la Formación La Luna, enfocados en su importancia sedimentológica e implicaciones como roca generadora de hidrocarburos. La Formación La Luna presentan propiedades físicas y químicas para la acumulación y generación de hidrocarburos con porosidad totalmente saturadas de kerógeno en al menos un 10%-20%, considerándose con alto potencial hidrocarburífero en la cuenca del Catatumbo, Valle Medio del Magdalena y Cesar-Ranchería, cuyo volumen acumulado de hidrocarburo está alrededor de los 2000 Millones de Barriles de Petróleo (MBP) in situ, a profundidades que varían entre los 1.000 a 5.000 m, así como en la cuenca Guajira offshore (aun casi inexplorada) que cuenta con reportes de gas de entre 92 a 3500 GPCG (Miles de Millones de Pies Cúbicos de Gas) las cuales son de gran interés para posteriores estudios más detallados y evaluaciones económicas que permitan lograr su desarrollo comercial en miras a mejorar las condiciones económicas, sociales y científicas del país.
... Although the compound effect of strike-slip and extension has been widely recognized, the concepts of extension torsional fault and transtensional fault have been put forward 15,16 . In the early stage of exploration, many scholars have been relatively mature in the study of extensional faults, and their structural deformation is relatively simple [17][18][19][20] . The tectonic evolution of normal faults and the extensional deformation under gravity slump are simulated and the rotation deformation mechanism of non-rigid blocks is proposed 21,22 . ...
This study used the growth index, fault activity rate and fault distance burial depth curve methods to analyze the characteristics of fault activity in the central area of Dongying depression. Using typical fault evolution and dynamic analysis to study the stages of fault evolution in the area, and using physical simulation experiments to study the mechanism and evolution process of fault formation. According to the results, the faults in the study area can be classified into four types. The Shicun fault and the pre-existing faults in the basin developed in the Paleogene Kongdian to Es4 period. Es3x and Es3z stages were characterized by strong extensional fault activities. The effect of strike-slip transformation from the Es3s to Es1 period was strengthened. The extensional fault continued to be active in Dongying period, and the strike-slip fault was basically stopped. The study area has been in the depression stage since Neogene. The physical simulation experiments show that the northern He 125 fault system is a fault combination composed of a main fault and broom-shaped branches formed by normal fault activities in the early stages and dextral strike slip processes in the late periods. The central en echelon fault system is a fault combination composed of three R fractures inherited the NE-SW basement fault and regulated by the later dextral strike-slip activities. The southern Wangjiagang fault system is a complex fault combination composed of Wangjiagang structure (P fracture) and Bamianhe structure (R fracture) developed from the Tanlu concealed branch strike-slip fault. This paper provided important reference for further research on the tectonic evolution and hydrocarbon accumulation in Dongying depression.
... A first phase of deformation, which postdate the Paleozoic, possibly in the final phase of the Caledonian orogeny, formed the tight folding of the Floresta Formation. A second phase of deformation, sometime during the Mesozoic rifting, allowed deposition along asymmetrical normal fault-related basins, as shown by the lateral changes in thickness of the Floresta Formation identified here and in other localities across the Eastern Cordillera (e.g., Sarmiento, 2001;Kammer and Sánchez, 2006;Sarmiento et al., 2006). A third phase of deformation related to the pre-Andean and Andean deformation, as identified in previous works (e.g., Mora et al., 2010Mora et al., , 2013Ramírez-Arias et al., 2012). ...
A comprehensive tectono-stratigraphic and sedimentological investigation of Early to Middle Devonian rocks was conducted in the southern Floresta Massif and adjacent regions in the Northern Andes of Colombia. A substantially reduced thickness of the Floresta Formation compared to prior studies is suggested here, attributable to pronounced stratal deformation and the prevalence of recumbent folds throughout the area. The deformation in the Floresta Formation manifests as atypical recumbent folds, diverging from the structural behavior observed in the underlying and overlying strata of the El Tibet and Cuche formations respectively, which exhibit minimal deformation. Our findings also reveal that the Floresta Formation accumulated under shallow-water platform conditions, subject to eustatic sea-level fluctuations. This resulted in distinct episodes of carbonate and siliciclastic deposition, with terrigenous sediments sourced from continental origins, potentially encompassing a combination of cratonic areas and uplifted blocks. The identification of a plausible stage of carbonate silicification signifies a post-diagenetic transformation. The sedimentary rocks of the Floresta Formation reached the upper epizone conditions, in proximity to the transition between the epizone and the upper anchizone, which suggests a maximum depth and temperature of ~5-7 km and ~300 °C, respectively. This contribution provides new insights into the geological history of the region, emphasizing the importance of scrutinizing Early to Middle Devonian rocks within the broader geological context of the Northern Andes.
... La Cordillera Oriental de Colombia es definida como un rift Mesozoico, fragmentado en diversas subcuencas e invertido durante el Neógeno (Cooper et al., 1995;Sarmiento et al., 2006;Mora et al., 2009;Bayona et al., 2013) ( Figure 1A). Estas subcuencas están separadas por altos de basamento como los macizos de Santander y de Floresta (Cooper et al., 1995). ...
... El basamento cristalino de la Cordillera Oriental está localizado en los macizos de Garzón, Quetáme, Floresta y Santander, cubierto por una secuencia volcanoclástica del Jurásico Temprano, y continental del Jurásico Tardío-Cretácico Temprano, que es seguida una sedimentación de rocas marinas (niveles de evaporitas, lodos y carbonatos) del Cretácico Temprano a Tardío (Cooper et al., 1995;Sarmiento et al., 2006). La sedimentación del Maastrichtiano al Paleoceno se asocia a rocas de ambientes costeros, seguidas por una sucesión de rocas del Paleógeno continentales (Cooper et al., 1995;Mora et al., 2009;Bayona et al., 2013). ...
... La sedimentación del Maastrichtiano al Paleoceno se asocia a rocas de ambientes costeros, seguidas por una sucesión de rocas del Paleógeno continentales (Cooper et al., 1995;Mora et al., 2009;Bayona et al., 2013). Los depósitos del Neógeno corresponden a ambientes continentales y están localizados en los núcleos de sinclinales (Sarmiento et al., 2006, Bayona et al., 2013 (Figure 1C). ...
Sedimentary sequences containing evaporitic levels exhibit complex three-dimensional structures due to halokinetic movements known as salt tectonics. In the Anticlinal de Zipaquirá, located in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, saline levels are reported within the Lower Cretaceous units. This study conducted a structural analysis of the evolution of the Anticlinal de Zipaquirá, based on analogue models that simulate the relationship between salt tectonics and the transverse zones that bound and segment this structure. The models were constructed on a sandbox-type deformation table, maintaining a constant displacement velocity. The models simulate basement anisotropies using a rigid wooden block consisting of two frontal ramps inclined at 30° connected by a lateral ramp. Adjacent to this block, a layer of non-newtonian fluid and variable-colored fine quartz sand layers were arranged. Three configurations were implemented with different distributions of the non-newtonian fluid layer: A) thin continuous, B) discontinuous, and C) thick continuous. At least 15 experiments were conducted for each configuration. The results of the analogue modeling showed that the salt body in the core of the anticline is cut by reverse faults, forming a parallel salt sheet structure to the stratification. The observed structures, such as salt pillows, salt glaciers, salt sheets, and salt tongues, indicate compressive structural styles of intermediate to high maturity. The discontinuous model proved to be the most coherent since the lateral ramp did not exhibit evaporitic levels, aligning with observations in nature. The Neusa transverse Fault was represented by the lateral ramp in the model, explaining the localization of saline levels in the southern zone of the Anticlinal de Zipaquirá. Finally, the evolution of the models revealed clockwise rotations near the lateral ramp, consistent with the reported patterns of clockwise rotations in the axial zone of the Cordillera Oriental.
... This unit has been dated as late Cenomanian to Santonian (Montoya and Reyes, 2003;Corredor and Terraza, 2015), while Guerrero and Sarmiento (1996) indicated that the lower part of the Chipaque Formation is early Turonian. It accumulated in a shallow marine platform (Ulloa and Rodríguez, 1976;Villamil, 1998;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019) when the tectono-eustatic base level reached its maximum level during the Mesozoic (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006;Corredor and Terraza, 2015;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019). ...
Several Cretaceous amber-bearing localities were recently discovered, including the Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Hollín Formation), and the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Une Formation at La Popa mine). A palynological study of 48 samples was carried out to date them and assess their broad floristic content. We date the Hollín Formation as spanning the late Aptian to the early Albian based on the co-occurrence of Callialasporites trilobatus, Retitricolpites operculatus and Callialasporites dampieri, among others. The sandstone lens containing amber from Une Formation at La Popa mine were dated as latest Aptian to early Cenomanian based upon the co-occurrence of Callialasporites dampieri, Afropollis jardinus, Ischyosporites variegatus and Gnetaceaepollenites retangularis. The palynoflora is dominated by high spore diversity suggesting humid climate conditions in the northwestern margin of Gondwana.
... The Middle Magdalena Valley Basin (MMVB) harbors a complex geological history from the Mesozoic to present (Horton et al., 2010;Carvajal-Torres et al., 2022). Between Triassic to Early Cretaceous, an extensional rift basin related to the Pangea break-up accumulated red beds and volcaniclastic rocks (Etayo-Serna et al., 1983;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001;G omez et al., 2003;Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). During most of the Cretaceous sedimentation was marine, associated with a major transgressiveeregressive cycle with maximum flooding close to the CenomanianeTuronian boundary (Villamil, 1998;Guerrero, 2002;Sarmiento-Rojas, 2018). ...
