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![Location of currrent manual weather stations in the Norwegian Arctic (Bjørnøya [Elevation: 16 m a.s.l., Start: 1920]), Hopen [6, 1944], Hornsund (Polish) [10,1978], Sveagruva [9, 1978]), Barentsburg (Russian)[x,1933], Svalbard Airport [28, 1975], Ny- Ålesund [8, 1974], Jan Mayen [10, 1921]).](profile/Inger-Hanssen-Bauer/publication/242731177/figure/fig1/AS:298438508990466@1448164693622/Location-of-currrent-manual-weather-stations-in-the-Norwegian-Arctic-Bjornoya.png)
Location of currrent manual weather stations in the Norwegian Arctic (Bjørnøya [Elevation: 16 m a.s.l., Start: 1920]), Hopen [6, 1944], Hornsund (Polish) [10,1978], Sveagruva [9, 1978]), Barentsburg (Russian)[x,1933], Svalbard Airport [28, 1975], Ny- Ålesund [8, 1974], Jan Mayen [10, 1921]).
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The first part of the paper gives a review of recent and projected climatic variations in the Norwegian Arctic. The annual temperature has increased in the Svalbard region and at Jan Mayen during the latest decades, but the present level is still lower than in the 1930s. Measured annual precipitation has increased by more than 2.5% per decade durin...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... present network of synoptical weather stations consists of five stations at Spitsbergen and three stations at Arctic islands (cf. Figure 1). The oldest meteorological observations from the Norwegian Arctic were made during scientific expeditions to different locations at Svalbard or Jan Mayen. ...
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Long-term meteorological data for the Arctic are sparse. One of the longest quasi-continuous temperature time series in the High Arctic is the extended Svalbard Airport series, providing daily temperature data from 1898 until the present. Here, I derive an adjustment to historic temperature observations on the island of Nordaustlandet, north-east S...
The Arctic land areas have experienced greater warming over the last
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The Svalbard Airport composite series spanning the period from 1898 to the present represents one of very few long-term instrumental temperature series from the High Arctic. A homogenized monthly temperature series is available since 2014. Here we increase the resolution from a monthly to daily basis, and further digitization of historical data has...
Climate change has profoundly affected global ecological security. The most vulnerable region on Earth is the high-latitude Arctic. Identifying the changes in vegetation coverage and glaciers in high-latitude Arctic coastal regions is important for understanding the process and impact of global climate change. Ny-Ålesund, the northern-most human se...
One of the few long instrumental records available for the Arctic is the Svalbard Airport composite series that hitherto began in 1911, with observations made on Spitsbergen, the largest island in the Svalbard Archipelago. This record has now been extended to 1898 with the inclusion of observations made by hunting and scientific expeditions. Temper...
Citations
... T 2m was -0.9°C and mean annual corrected precipitation at the AWS in Tasiilaq was approximately 1,200 mm water equivalent/year (w.e./year) (corrected after (Allerup et al., 1998;2000)) (Mernild S. et al., 2012). The relative occurrence of solid, mixed and liquid precipitation has been estimated based on air temperatures (Hanssen-bauer, 2003), and was found to be 68%, 14% and 18% respectively in the period 1999-2006 (Mernild et al., 2008). Glacier thinning and glacier recession has been observed in the broader region of south-east Greenland (Bjørk et al., 2012;Mernild S. H. et al., 2012). ...
Along with Arctic warming, climate models project a strong increase in Arctic precipitation in the 21st century as well as an increase in the ratio of liquid to total precipitation. In the precipitation-rich region of south-east Greenland, precipitation changes could locally have significant impacts on runoff. However, climate data are sparse in this remote region. This study focuses on improving our understanding of the past precipitation changes on Ammassalik island in south-east Greenland between 1958 and 2021. To assess past changes in air temperature at 2-meter and precipitation, output from a regional polar climate model (RACMO2.3p2) is evaluated with measurements from automatic weather stations in Tasiilaq and on Mittivakkat glacier. In addition, RACMO2.3p2 is used to assess past seasonal changes in air temperature at 2-meter, precipitation amount, precipitation phase and the altitude of the rain/snow boundary. We find that the climate model accurately represents the monthly average observed air temperature at 2-meter. While total precipitation is overestimated, interannual variability of precipitation is properly captured. We report a significant increase of summer temperature at 2-meter of +0.3°C/decade (p<0.01) at Mittivakkat glacier and +0.2°C/decade (p<0.01) in Tasiilaq in 1958–2021. For the subperiod 1990–2019, the trend in annual averages of temperature at 2-meter in Tasiilaq (+0.8°C/decade, p=0.02) corresponds well to known temperature trends on the Greenland Ice Sheet within the same period. On Mittivakkat glacier a significant trend is not detected within this subperiod (+0.2°C/decade, p=0.25). The modelled liquid precipitation ratio on Ammassalik island increased in all summer months (1958–2015) by +2.0/+1.9/+1.8%/decade in June/July/August respectively. In July and August, these trends were stronger at higher elevations. No statistical evidence is found for trends in other seasons. We also identify monthly increases in the altitude of the rain-to-snow boundary (+25/+23/+20 m/decade in July/August/September respectively).
... Further a rise of winter temperature exceeds increases of the summer temperature, and the length of the snow season has decreased by more than 20 days in the period between 1958 and 2017 (Adakudlu, Andresen, Bakke, et al., 2019). Due to the strong variations of weather during the past, predicting the future with modelling is not straight forward and one needs to include inhomogeneity's carefully (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). The latest climate report, SCROCC (special report on the ocean and the cryosphere in a changing climate) which was published at the IPCC Session in September 2019, supports the hypothesis that the Arctic surface air temperature has increased at more than double the global average (Pörtner et al., 2019). ...
... However, one has to be careful when interpreting this statement, because it is known that the precipitation measurement of rain is way more accurate compared to snow. Therefore, an overall increased measurement of precipitation can be a result of more rain and less snow precipitation (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). Furthermore, trends are visible for the increase of precipitation around autumn and winter for all Arctic islands, but the uncertainty is still considerably large. ...
... Generally problematic is the scarce network of automatic weather stations and the precipitation catchment errors due to dry snow and strong winds (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). A study with a great amount of data was performed by Bintanja and Andry (2017). ...
Research has shown that glaciers in Svalbard are very sensitive to the persistence of snow and firn and considerable knowledge gaps concerning the consequences of a changing climate and the effects on glacier accumulation processes are existent. Especially, empirical studies are necessary to update the knowledge by providing much-needed field data for monitoring and model validation. Therefore, this study aims to (i) identify the amount, distribution and properties of snow and firn in the accumulation zone and (ii) to estimate the amount of melt or rainwater which refreezes within the snow/firn. The field campaign for data collection was carried out in spring and summer 2019 in the accumulation zone of four arctic glaciers, Foxfonna, Nordenskiöldbreen, Drønbreen and Von Postbreen all located on the Svalbard archipelago.
The snow and firn regime in the glacier accumulation zone were investigated using snow profiles, ground penetrating radar surveys, firn cores and snow depth probing’s. Additionally, an installation with iButtons (temperature loggers) was set up on Nordenskiöldbreen and a station with two highly sensitive thermistor strings were installed on Foxfonna. The temperature datasets were used to model the subsurface temperature evolution and the amount of melt or rainwater refreezing with MATLAB by using a thermodynamic equation and the density evolution modelled through meteorological parameters.
Analysis of the obtained GPR data revealed similar accumulation characteristics throughout all collected radargrams. Further a trend of a densifying and thinning firn can be seen. Only the height of the Equilibrium line altitude and therefore also the elevation where the accumulation zone can be found varied. The total amount of refreezing on Foxfonna was modelled to be 593 mm for the first thermistor and 221 mm for the second thermistor string. On Nordenskiöldbreen, the refreezing amount was modelled to be 389 mm using the iButton data. The results of the refreezing modelling indicate that a lot of rainwater percolated into the snowpack and led to refreezing seen in the calculated datasets.
Based on the results of this study, further investigations are recommended, especially towards long-time monitoring of the accumulation zone dynamics, to be able to identify trends. Additionally, to understand the effect of refreezing on the glacier mass balance, further research is needed with a broader focus on all melt enhancing processes on the glaciers surface and their mutual influence.
... Mixed and liquid precipitation forms are much rarer at 13% and 8% of days in a year, respectively (Łupikasza 2003). The form of the atmospheric precipitation is strictly dependent on air temperature and this dependency varies geographically (Lauscher 1954;Cehak-Trock 1958;Hess 1965;Przybylak 2002;Førland and Hanssen-Bauer 2003;Łupikasza 2008). At Hornsund snowfall is most frequent on days with temperatures ranging from -11.0°C to 0.0°C. ...
The paper discusses the impact of the atmospheric circulation on the long-term variability of liquid, mixed and solid precipitation. The three precipitation forms were characterised by their totals, the number of days when they prevailed, and the contribution of each to the overall precipitation totals. Trends, as a background to further analysis, were calculated with regard to each characteristic of each precipitation form. The most significant increases were recorded in the contribution of liquid precipitation to the overall precipitation totals in September and in the mixed precipitation totals in December and November. Arctic Oscillation (AO) was found to have only a minor influence on the long-term variability of precipitation characteristics. The AO phase could to some degree account for the observed variation in the number of days with liquid precipitation. On the other hand, the direction of the local advection could account for considerably more of this variability and also the variability in liquid precipitation totals.
... Solid (snow) precipitation was calculated from snow depth sounder observations at the other stations ( Fig. 1 and Table 1) after sounder data noise was removed; these data are assumed to be accurate within 610%-15% (Mernild et al. 2007(Mernild et al. , 2009b. Snow depth sounder observations were partitioned into liquid (rain) and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on methods employed at Svalbard (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer 2003). For air temperatures below 21.58C, sounder data were considered to represent solid precipitation and for temperatures above 3.58C precipitation is considered liquid; linear interpolation was used to calculate snow and rain fractions at temperatures between these limits. ...
Fluctuations in the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) surface mass balance (SMB) and freshwater influx to the surrounding oceans closely follow climate fluctuations and are of considerable importance to the global eustatic sea level rise.Astate-of-the-art snow-evolution modeling system(SnowModel) was used to simulate variations in theGrISmelt extent, surfacewater balance components, changes inSMB, and freshwater influx to the ocean. The simulations are based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scenario A1B modeled by the HIRHAM4 regional climate model (RCM) using boundary conditions from the ECHAM5 atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) from 1950 through 2080. In situ meteorological station [Greenland Climate Network (GC-Net) andWorld Meteorological Organization (WMO)DanishMeteorological Institute (DMI)] observations from inside and outside the GrIS were used to validate and correct RCM output data before they were used as input for SnowModel. Satellite observations and independent SMB studies were used to validate the SnowModel output and confirmthemodel's robustness. The authors simulated an ~90% increase in end-of-summer surface melt extent (0.483 × 106 km2) from 1950 to 2080 and a melt index (above 2000-m elevation) increase of 138% (1.96 × 106 km2 × days). The greatest difference in melt extent occurred in the southern part of theGrIS, and the greatest changes in the number of melt dayswere seen in the eastern part of the GrIS (~50%-70%) and were lowest in the west (~20%-30%). The rate of SMB loss, largely tied to changes in ablation processes, leads to an enhanced average loss of 331 km3 from 1950 to 2080 and an average SMB level of 299 km3 for the period 2070-80. GrIS surface freshwater runoff yielded a eustatic rise in sea level from 0.8±0.1 (1950-59) to 1.9±0.1 mm(2070-80) sea level equivalent (SLE) yr-1. The accumulated GrIS fresh water run off contribution from surface melting equaled 160-mm SLE from 1950 through 2080.
... Solid (snow) precipitation was calculated from snow-depth sounder observations at the other stations (Figure 1 andTable I) after the sounder data noise was removed; these data are assumed to be accurate within š10–15% (). Snow depth sounder observations were partitioned into liquid (rain) precipitation and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on methods employed at Svalbard (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). For air temperatures below 1Ð5 ° C, sounder data were considered to represent solid precipitation, and for temperatures above 3Ð5 ° C precipitation is considered liquid; linear interpolation calculated snow and rain fractions at temperatures between these limits. ...
The freshwater flux from the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) to the ocean is of considerable importance to the global eustatic sea level rise. A physical modelling approach using SnowModel, a state-of-the-art snow-evolution modelling system that includes four submodels (MicroMet, EnBal, SnowPack, and SnowTran-3D), was used to quantify the 1995–2007 GrIS surface mass-balance (SMB), including freshwater flux. Meteorological observations from 26 meteorological stations located on the GrIS (Greenland Climate Network; GC-Net stations) and in coastal Greenland (Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) WMO-stations) were used as model inputs. The GrIS minimum surface melt extent of 29% occurred in 1996, while the greatest extent of 51% was present in 2007. The 2007 melt extent was 20% greater than the average for 1995–2006. The year 2007 had the highest GrIS surface runoff (523 km3 y−1) and the lowest SMB (−3 km3 y−1); the only year with a negative GrIS SMB. Runoff in 2007 was approximately 35% greater than average for 1995–2006. From 1995 through 2007 overall, precipitation decreased while ablation increased, leading to an increased average SMB loss of 127 km3. The modelled GrIS SMB was merged with previous estimates of GrIS subglacial runoff (from geothermal melt) and GrIS calving to quantify GrIS freshwater flux to the ocean, indicating an average negative mass-balance of 265 ( ±83) km3 y−1. This study further suggests an average GrIS freshwater flux of approximately 786 km3 y−1 to the ocean, of which 45% occurs from iceberg calving and geothermal bottom melting. The average annual GrIS freshwater flux equals 2·1 ± 0·2 mm w.eq. y−1 in eustatic sea level rise, indicating a cumulative flux of 28 mm w.eq. from 1995 through 2007. The average GrIS net loss contributes to a net sea level rise of 0·7 ± 0·2 mm w.eq. y−1, and a cumulative net increase of 10 mm w.eq. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Solid (snow) precipitation was calculated from snow depth sounder observations at the other stations ( Fig. 1 and Table 1) after sounder data noise was removed; these data are assumed to be accurate within 610%-15% (Mernild et al. 2007(Mernild et al. , 2009b. Snow depth sounder observations were partitioned into liquid (rain) and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on methods employed at Svalbard (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer 2003). For air temperatures below 21.58C, sounder data were considered to represent solid precipitation and for temperatures above 3.58C precipitation is considered liquid; linear interpolation was used to calculate snow and rain fractions at temperatures between these limits. ...
This article was submitted without an abstract, please refer to the
full-text PDF file.
... Solid (snow) precipitation was calculated from snow-depth sounder observations ( Fig. 1b and Table 1; station 19) after the sounder data noise was removed; these data are assumed to be accurate within Ϯ(10%-15%) (Mernild et al. 2007c). The snowdepth sounder observations were fractionated into liquid (rain) precipitation and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on observations from different locations on Svalbard (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer 2003). For air temperatures below Ϫ1.5°C, sounder data were considered to represent solid precipitation and for temperatures above 3.5°C precipitation is considered liquid; for temperatures between these limits, the snow and rain fraction is calculated by linear interpolation. ...
SnowModel was used to simulate variations in snow water equivalant,
surface snow and ice melt, and other water balance components for the
period 1995-2005 in Greenland, including the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS).
Meteorological observations from 25 stations inside and outside the GrIS
were used as model input. Winter and summer mass balance observations,
spatial snow depth observations, and snow melt depletion curves derived
from time lapse photography from the Mittivakkat and Zackenberg
glacierized catchments in East Greenland were used to validate the
performance of SnowModel. Model results compared well with observed
values. The yearly modeled GrIS interior non-melt area differs from
satellite observations by a maximum of ~68,000 km2 (or ~6%) in 2004, and
the lowest uncertainties (<8,000 km2, or <1%) occur for the years
with the smallest (2005) and most extensive (1996) non-melt area. The
modeled inter-annual variability in non-melt area also agrees with
observation records (R2 = 0.96), yielding a simulated GrIS non-melt
cover of 71% for 1996 and 50% for 2005. Modeled surface melt occurred at
elevations reaching 2,950 m a.s.l. for 2005. On average, the simulated
non- melt area decreased ~6% from 1995 through 2005; this trend is
similar to satellite observed values. An average loss in GrIS storage of
-79(±98) mm w.eq. y-1 (or -153(±181) km3 y-1), and a
runoff of 211(±31) mm w.eq. y-1 (or 392(±58) km3 y-1) also
occurred over the period 1995-2005. Approximately 58% and 42% of the
runoff occured from the GrIS western drainage and eastern drainage
areas, respectively. The modeled average specific runoff from the GrIS
was 6.7 l s-1 km-2 y-1, which, over the simulation period, represents a
contribution of ~1 mm y-1 to global sea level rise.
... After noise was removed from the snow depth data (Campbell SR50), the snow-depth sounding observations were fractionated into liquid (rain) precipitation and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on observations from different locations on Svalbard. For air temperatures below -1.5ºC, sounding observations represents solid precipitation in 100% of the events and for temperatures above 3.5ºC precipitation is liquid for 100% of the events, in between (-1.5ºC to 3.5ºC) the fraction of snow and rain is calculated by linear interpolation (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). Snow-depth increases at relative humidity <80% and at wind speed >10 m s -1 were removed to distinguish between the proportions of real snow accumulation based on precipitation events and blowing snow redistribution. ...
Riparian wetlands are narrow strips of saturated and vegetated ground forming critical links between dry ground and waterways. The hydrology of a riparian wetland situated within a polar oasis landscape near Eastwind Lake, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut ( 808800N, 858350W) was investigated in 2006 using a combination of fieldwork and modelling. Supplemental information from 2005 was also employed. This study showed that deep snow in the nearby stream channel does not promote a period of extended over-bank flooding but instead initially serves as a dam blocking most streamwater from entering and flooding the wetland. It was not until the snow dam melts and disintegrates in response to favourable weather conditions that the wetland becomes flooded and fully recharged. This was a delay of three weeks from the previous year. For the remainder of the 2006 growing season, contributions of meltwater from late-lying snow beds located within and adjacent to the stream channel and near the headwaters were essential for maintaining saturated conditions in the wetland.
... After noise was removed from the snow depth data (Campbell SR50), the snow-depth sounding observations were fractionated into liquid (rain) precipitation and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures based on observations from different locations on Svalbard. For air temperatures below -1.5ºC, sounding observations represents solid precipitation in 100% of the events and for temperatures above 3.5ºC precipitation is liquid for 100% of the events, in between (-1.5ºC to 3.5ºC) the fraction of snow and rain is calculated by linear interpolation (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003). Snow-depth increases at relative humidity <80% and at wind speed >10 m s -1 were removed to distinguish between the proportions of real snow accumulation based on precipitation events and blowing snow redistribution. ...
Arctic wetland environments are considered to be sensitive to ongoing climate change but they have received limited attention despite their ecological importance. To understand and quantify better the hydrologic processes which are leading to the sustainability and demise of High Arctic ponds, a water balance framework was employed on several ponds situated in two broad geomorphic areas near Creswell Bay, Somerset Island (72°43′N, 94°15′W). These ponds are also linked to an upland area through a range of linear features: stream, late-lying snowbeds and frost cracks. This study assesses the importance of these features with respect to the sustainability of these wetland ponds.
A pond's position in the moraine landscape was important in determining its connectivity to a nearby stream and late-lying snowbed. Close proximity to a stream draining a large upland snow-covered catchment ensures steady water levels during the snowmelt period. Once discharge slows, a late-lying snowbed continues to supply the pond and others nearby with meltwater. The deeply thawed, sandy coastal zone is characterized by frost cracks, which contribute to the patterned ground of this wetland zone. These cracks, when situated downslope of ponds, function primarily as ‘sinks’ and serve to deprive small and medium-sized ponds of water during dry periods, often leading to their desiccation.
... where P is the precipitation input from snow, rain and possible condensation, ET is evaporation, SU is sublimation, After noise was removed manually from the snow depth data (Campbell SR50), the snow-depth sounding observations were partitioned into liquid (rain) precipitation and solid (snow) precipitation at different air temperatures (Førland & Hanssen-Bauer 2003). For air temperatures below 21.58C, sounding observations represent solid precipitation in 100% of the events, and for temperatures above 3.58C precipitation is liquid for 100% of the events. ...
... For air temperatures below 21.58C, sounding observations represent solid precipitation in 100% of the events, and for temperatures above 3.58C precipitation is liquid for 100% of the events. In between (2 1.58C to 3.58C) the fraction of snow and rain (mixed precipitation) is calculated by linear interpolation (Førland & Hanssen-Bauer 2003). Air temperature at the nunatak was used to determine whether precipitation in solid, mixed or liquid occurred. ...
Climate, glacier mass balance and runoff are investigated in the Low-Arctic Mittivakkat Glacier catchment on Ammassalik Island, Southeast Greenland. High-resolution meteorological data from the catchment covering 1993 -2005 and standard synoptic meteorological data from the nearby town of Tasiilaq (Ammassalik) from 1898-2005 are used. Within the catchment, gradients and variations are observed in meteorological conditions between the coastal and the glacier areas. During the period 1993-2005 about 15% lower annual solar radiation was observed in the coastal area. Further, decreasing mean annual air temperatures (MAAT) occur in the coastal area, indicating an approximately 20-d shorter thawing period. The higher lying glacier area, in contrast, experiences an increasing MAAT, an approximately 40-d longer thawing period and a 60-d longer snow-free period. The Mittivakkat Glacier net mass balance has been almost continuously negative, corresponding to an average loss of glacier volume of 0.4% yr(-1). The total catchment runoff is averaging 1973 +/- 281mm w. eq. yr(-1), and around 30% of the runoff is explained by glacier net loss. Over the 106 years (1898 -2004) MAAT has, on average, increased significantly in the catchment by 1.3 degrees C. However, time periods of considerable variability occur. All seasons show increasing air temperatures, with the highest increase during winter season. The period 1995 -2004 was the warmest 10-yr period within the last 60 yr, and 1936 -1946 the warmest within the last 106 years. The calculated glacier net mass balance indicates an average glacier loss of 550 +/- 530mm w. eq. yr(-1), and 89 out of 105 mass balance years show a negative net mass balance. For the 106-yr period average runoff was estimated to be 1957 +/- 254mm w. eq. yr (-1).
