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Location of Serras de Aire e Candeeiros Natural Park in the context of the Iberian Peninsula (Europe) (a), study area within the Natura 2000 site (b), habitat types map of the study area showing the 10 blocks of paired plots (c), and detail of the sampling design (one paired plot) (d). Source of map 1c: ICNF (http://www.icnf.pt/)
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The Natura 2000 network is crucial to conserve biodiversity in the European Union and provides hotspots for certain ecosystem services. Grazing, a common land use in different Natura 2000 habitat types, may contribute to the maintenance of protected plant communities and reduce fuel loads and wildfire hazard. Our study aims to assess the effects of...
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Context
This study provides a unified, holistic framework for predicting the dynamics of shrub-grass conversion throughout Mediterranean-climate shrublands. This work focuses specifically on the California chaparral, which until recently has been considered resistant to invasion by exotic grasses, but in recent years appears to have undergone subst...
Citations
... The Harvest type can shape grasslands, as grazing animals are selective for or against certain plant species 25 , which can lead to increasing abundance of unwanted species, while mowing is unselective and impacts all species equally. Meadows and pastures thus show distinct differences in vegetation composition but also microbial processes, which likely affects ecosystem services 26,27 . In addition, trampling by livestock can lead to disservices such as erosion and low soil organic carbon as a consequence of sward damage 28 . ...
Human wellbeing depends on ecosystem services, highlighting the need for improving the ecosystem-service multifunctionality of food and feed production systems. We study Swiss agricultural grasslands to assess how employing and combining three widespread aspects of grassland management and their interactions can enhance 22 plot-level ecosystem service indicators, as well as ecosystem-service multifunctionality. The three management aspects we assess are i) organic production system, ii) an eco-scheme prescribing extensive management (without fertilization), and iii) harvest type (pasture vs. meadow). While organic production system and interactions between the three management aspects play a minor role, the main effects of eco-scheme and harvest type considerably shape single services. Moreover, the eco-scheme ‘extensive management’ and the harvest type ‘pasture’ enhance plot-scale ecosystem-service multifunctionality, mostly through facilitating cultural services at the expense of provisioning services. These changes in ecosystem-service supply occur mainly via changes in land-use intensity, i.e., reduced fertilizer input and harvest frequency. In conclusion, diversifying grassland management where this is currently homogeneous across farms and landscapes depicts an important first step to improve landscape-scale multifunctionality for sustainable grassland systems. To meet societal ecosystem services demand, the three studied management aspects can be systematically combined to increase ecosystem services that are in short supply.
... One option would be to use the harvested biomass for producing bioenergy (Melts et al., 2019), combining bioenergy plants with biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision (Werling et al., 2014). Alternatively, mowing can be combined with the temporal grazing of cattle, sheep or goats in these habitats (Silva et al., 2019), broadening the range of land sharing tools. Such topics need to be carefully thought out and adapted to local contexts so that set-aside management will not represent problems for farmers and reduce their willingness to set aside their land. ...
... In addition, 23 papers targeted "wildfire prevention and biomass regulation" services, such as the control of shrub encroachment through regulation of vegetation biomass and structure (e.g. Alcañiz et al., 2020;Schoenbaum et al., 2018;Silva et al., 2019). The "regulation of soil quality" was the third most frequent regulation ecosystem service, being assessed in 12 studies focused on improving or preserving soil quality and preventing erosion (e.g. ...
... In this case, after estimating the odds ratio, long-term grazing showed a significant negative association with positive results (p = 0.027), i.e., the probability of positive outcomes occurring in long-term grazing interventions is significantly lower than in short-term grazing (Table S10). On the other hand, regardless of grazing intensity, all the interventions with short-term grazing, report positive outcomes for this ecosystem service (e.g., Glasser et al., 2012;Ruiz-Mirazo and Robles, 2012;Silva et al., 2019) (Fig. 5), describing the rapid decline in biomass accumulation due to grazing. No significant associations were found for biodiversity and habitat conservation, and regulation of soil quality (Fig. 5b). ...
... Positive effects on biodiversity and habitat conservation were observed when extensive or moderate grazing was implemented ( Fig. 3; Table 3). In shrubland habitats in Portugal, this led to an increase in grasses and shrub diversity (Silva et al., 2019), while in Italy, it enhanced plant functional diversity of grasslands (Tardella and Catorci, 2015). While not statistically significant, intensive grazing regimes generally yielded positive results for wildfire prevention and biomass regulation, as authors confirmed the rapid grazing control of vegetation encroachment (Bashan and Bar-Massada, 2017;Celaya et al., 2010;Ruiz-Mirazo et al., 2011). ...
In the Mediterranean basin, the structure and species composition of traditional landscapes have historically been shaped and maintained by human-driven disturbances, such as extensive livestock grazing. The cessation of these activities, which have partially replaced the role of natural disturbances, may lead to vegetation overgrowth and biomass accumulation, with potential adverse impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem functions and services. Recently, the use of livestock for ecosystem management, with the purpose of maintaining grazing disturbance and the associated ecosystem processes, has been gaining traction. Nevertheless, there is still limited evidence on the performance of such grazing interventions. This review assesses the state of the art regarding the use of livestock for ecosystem management in Mediterranean landscapes. It examines the association between the regime and duration of grazing interventions and their reported effects on ecosystems. The list of reviewed interventions (68 interventions, retrieved from 47 studies) covered a diverse range of landcover systems (from grasslands to forests), of grazing regimes (characterized by different levels of grazing intensity and livestock species), and of duration of grazing (from short-term, < 5 years to long-term grazing, > 20 years). Wildfire prevention and biomass control, biodiversity and habitat conservation and the regulation of soil quality are the main reasons for the use of grazing interventions. The results of this review suggest that the use of domestic herbivores in ecosystem management can contribute to wildfire prevention and biomass control, with these positive effects fading away in long-term grazing interventions. Goats seem to perform better than cattle for biomass control. The effects on biodiversity and habitat conservation depend on the grazing regime, with intensive grazing showing negative results, while the effects on soil quality are generally negative but require further assessment, due to data limitations.
... Protected areas that exclude any human intervention have traditionally been used to preserve biodiversity and halt environmental degradation (Pärtel et al. 2005). Indeed, previous research has shown that high levels of biodiversity can be typically found in habitat types with a favourable conservation status (Silva et al. 2019). In temperate grasslands, however, it has been shown that minor management interventions can support species-rich habitats (Fülöp et al. 2021;Ostermann 1998;Silva et al. 2019). ...
... Indeed, previous research has shown that high levels of biodiversity can be typically found in habitat types with a favourable conservation status (Silva et al. 2019). In temperate grasslands, however, it has been shown that minor management interventions can support species-rich habitats (Fülöp et al. 2021;Ostermann 1998;Silva et al. 2019). Pavlů et al. (2006) showed that plant species diversity increased within intensively and extensively grazed plots in comparison to unmanaged grassland plots in an experimental setting. ...
... In line with our expectations, our results showed that plant diversity was significantly higher in protected grasslands (Fig. 3) as, in general, habitat types with favourable conservation status host high levels of biodiversity (Silva et al. 2019). In addition, the negative association between land-use intensity and plant diversity appeared to be driven by fertilisation and mowing intensity, even in protected grasslands where these variables were significantly lower. ...
Context
A key global challenge is to meet both the growing demand for food and feed while maintaining biodiversity’s supporting functions. Protected grasslands, such as Natura 2000 sites in Europe, may play an important role in harmonising productivity and biodiversity goals. This work contributes to an understanding of the relationship between forage production and plant diversity in protected and non-protected grasslands.
Objectives
We aimed to identify differences in plant diversity and forage production between protected and non-protected grasslands by assessing the effects of land-use intensity (i.e. mowing, grazing, fertilising) on these variables.
Methods
Data were available for 95 managed grassland plots (50 × 50 m) in real-managed landscapes. After controlling for site conditions in the analysis, we tested for significant differences between protected and non-protected grasslands and used a multi-group structural equation modelling (SEM) framework to investigate the linkages between land-use intensity, biomass and plant diversity.
Results
In protected grasslands, plant diversity was significantly higher while forage production was significantly lower. In non-protected grasslands we found significantly higher land-use intensity, particularly in relation to mowing and fertilisation. Grazing intensity did not significantly differ between protected and non-protected grasslands. In non-protected grasslands we found a significant negative association between forage production and plant diversity. However, this effect was not significant in protected grasslands. We also found a negative association between land-use and plant diversity in both grassland types that was related to mowing and fertilising intensity. These two management aspects also influenced the positive association between land-use intensity and forage production. Furthermore, environmental conditions had a positive effect on forage production and a negative effect on plant diversity in protected grasslands.
Conclusions
Our results confirm that the protection of grassland sites is successful in achieving higher plant diversity compared to non-protected grasslands and that protected grasslands do not necessarily trade-off with forage production. This is possible under moderate grazing intensities as higher land-use intensity has a negative effect on plant diversity, particularly on rare species. However, forage production is lower in protected sites as it is driven by mowing and fertilisation intensity. Future research needs to further investigate if the nature of these relationships depends on the livestock type or other management practices.
... This conversion of temperate grasslands may threaten biodiversity (Hoekstra et al., 2005) and ecosystem service supply (Vidaller and Dutoit, 2022). However, forage productivity and nutritive quality are not used in the assessment of conservation status of Natura 2000 grasslands (Evans and Arvela, 2011;Silva et al., 2019). Considering forage production and nutritive value and investigating to what extent semi-natural grasslands are agronomically valuable is thus of the utmost importance for conservation through continuing extensive traditional agricultural management. ...
... Similarly, soil characteristics may directly impact forage biomass production and nutritive value through its capacity to provide nutrients for plants (Barker and Culman, 2018). However, both management and soil characteristics may also impact species composition which, as highlighted above, can impact forage productivity and nutritive quality (Janssens et al., 1998;Rusch et al., 2009;Gilhaus et al., 2017;Silva et al., 2019). This suggests that the effects of these factors on forage productivity and quality could be both direct and indirect by altering vegetation composition. ...
This paper aims in assessing the relationship between grassland plant diversity and agronomic value, which represents a major challenge to reconcile nature conservation and agricultural use of semi-natural grassland habitats. The effects of plant diversity and functional traits were studied on forage nutritive value and early standing biomass in a wide set of semi-natural temperate grassland habitats. Plant communities were described by their species and functional diversity, community-weighted means (CWM) of plant functional traits, and the relative cover of main plant functional types (graminoids, forbs, and legumes). Species richness was found to be negatively associated with early standing biomass and average mineral content. Community evenness, for both species and plant functional types, was positively correlated with digestibility, crude protein content, and average mineral content but negatively with early standing biomass. Early standing biomass was found to increase with increasing graminoid cover and to decrease with increasing forb cover. Forage nutritive value improved with higher legume cover, higher specific leaf area CWM and lower leaf dry matter content CWM, while these functional community characteristics were not found to impact early standing biomass. Our results highlight that a better forage nutritive value can be obtained with a higher plant species evenness in permanent grassland habitats. Furthermore, in grasslands with an even distribution of plant functional types, forage nutritive value may be improved with no loss in early standing biomass.
... Grasslands in Europe are semi-natural ecosystems that greatly depend on how they are managed (Butaye et al. 2005). This fact confirms the importance of disturbance in grasslands (Edwards et al. 2007 Grazing mesic and semi-dry semi-natural grasslands, e.g., habitat types 6210(*) and 6230*; not optimal for hay meadows and xeric grasslands selective (might cause an overgrowth of woody and thorny species, not palatable for certain types of livestock -primarily cows, so grazing by goats is recommended in this case); favours grasses over forbs due to their biology; dependent on species phenology; not suitable for xeric grasslands Halada et al. 2001, Muller 2002, Hayes and Holl 2003, Pykälä 2004, Edwards et al. 2007, Galvánek and Lepš 2008, Török et al. 2011, Turtureanu et al. 2014, Török et al. 2016, Bonari et al. 2017, Tóth et al. 2018, Silva et al. 2019, Köhler et al. 2020, Kurtogullari et al. 2020, Mrázková-Štýbnarová et al. 2020, Török et al. 2020, Tölgyesi et al. 2022, Zarzycki et al. 2022 Mowing various semi-natural grasslands, including habitat types 6210(*), 6230*, 6410, 6510, 6520 generally more accessible than grazing; early mowing facilitates the development of early-flowering species; enhancement of target species colonisation; improvement of the development of sown forbs by increasing competitiveness of higher plants; elimination of accumulated biomass and litter beneficial only if carried out at an appropriate time in the season (when most diagnostic grassland forb species are ripe) and not too frequently (regime dependent on grassland type); when carried out with machinery, it is a non-selective and highintensity disturbance single event (compared to grazing) -hand mowing has more advantages that are similar to grazing, but it is costly and timeconsuming; might cause vegetation homogenisation; heavy machinery threatens invertebrate diversity Halada et al. 2001, Muller 2002, Lawson et al. 2004, Edwards et al. 2007, Enyedi et al. 2008, Galvánek and Lepš 2008, Královec et al. 2009, Halada et al. 2011, Török et al. 2011, Török et al. 2016, Bonari et al. 2017, Milberg et al. 2017, Van Daele et al. 2017, Tälle et al. 2018, Török et al. 2020, Zarzycki et al. 2022 Prescribed burning (with long fire-return periods) Table 3. A list of post-restoration grassland management techniques used in the studies reviewed. ...
Currently, the majority of high nature value Slovenian grasslands have an unfavourable conservation status. Based on the available data from habitat type mappings, the surface of high nature value grasslands (6210(*) - semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates, 6410 - Molinia meadows, and 6510 - lowland hay meadows) at Natura 2000 sites is decreasing. The existing agri-environment measures have been only partly effective in promoting grassland biodiversity. The main threats to biodiversity are driven by various anthropogenic activities, which result in a continuous change in landscape identity, habitat fragmentation, and ecosystem degradation. Therefore, biodiversity restoration became an urgent step in the conservation of high nature value grasslands. Multiple pathways may lead to the ecological restoration of grasslands with an altered, uncharacteristic floristic composition, or grasslands with an unfavourable conservation status. In this paper, we present an overview of the methods used in the restoration of grasslands from different parts of Europe. In an adapted form, these methods could also be used for the restoration of Slovenian grasslands. Grasslands may be left to spontaneous succession, which is mainly suitable for small-scale areas located in the proximity of grasslands with well-preserved biodiversity. However, to re-establish plant communities with specialist species, a more proactive approach is usually required, such as sowing of regional or commercial seed preservation mixtures, transfer of mature plant material, or topsoil transfer from donor sites with appropriate botanical composition. Grassland restoration methods should be carefully thought-out and carried out before the habitat or species is endangered. We conclude that optimally chosen post-restoration management may have an impact that is comparable to or even greater than the impact of a suitable restoration method. Nevertheless, the maintenance of well-preserved grasslands is still much more cost-effective than the restoration of degraded grasslands.
... The guidelines to follow may be focused on the maintenance of the extensive livestock activities, regulating an optimum equilibrium between the effects of overgrazing and the consequences of the loss of cattle grazing. Livestock loss is a common biodiversity conservation problem in many Mediterranean ecosys-tems, which often leads to severe declines in biodiversity(Silva et al., 2019). Furthermore, overgrazing is also harmful not only by trampling on hostplants but also due to the direct consumption of leaves and flowers of larval foodplants(Munguira et al., 2017). ...
1. Understanding factors that regulate the patterns of diversity, richness, and density
of organisms is of enormous importance to manage biodiversity in a global change
context.
2. We investigate the importance of environmental factors in regulating the patterns
of diversity, richness, and density of diurnal butterflies in the Sierra Nevada mountain
range (SE Spain).
3. Diversity, richness, and density seem to be strongly correlated, being mainly defined
by land-use and topographic-related variables. The sites with the highest values
correspond to areas of dense scrubland, near patches of forest, oriented to the west
and with a high rate of solar radiation but not excessively exposed from the topographical
point of view. Topographic wetness index seems to be also important but
with a positive relation in the case of density and negative in the case of diversity
and richness.
4. Our results show a pattern of mid-elevation maxima, with highest values between
1600 and 2000 masl and lower in the summits and the piedmont (<1400 masl). This
brings us the possibility to identify a series of areas of high value for the conservation
of butterflies in this protected area, with important applications towards the
conservation and management of this group of insects.
5. Finally, a series of management recommendations to improve the conservation status of the butterfly communities in the Sierra Nevada protected area are inferred.
One of the main recommendations is based on the maintenance of spatial heterogeneity, taking into account traditional land uses that enhance biodiversity.
... The activities covered by CAP include mowing and grazing, which was intended to prevent open habitats (i.e. meadows) from transitioning through natural succession into climax communities, and was shown to have a positive effect on biodiversity (Silva et al., 2019). One of the crucial questions is whether the wider interests of biodiversity and the underlying principles of the CAP program are always compatible. ...
... The establishment of the Natura 2000 network can enhance the sustainability of the ecosystem services (Silva et al. 2019). It can also implement the EU's policy on nature and biodiversity. ...
... It can also implement the EU's policy on nature and biodiversity. Natura 2000 network has been evaluated as a tool for nature protection and biodiversity conservation in several studies (e.g., Schirpke et al. 2018;Silva et al. 2019). Adjacent areas to Natura 2000 sites could also be included in Natura 2000 protection policies (Bouwma et al. 2018). ...
Energy flows in perennial agro and natural ecosystems are essential and could be related to greenhouse gas emissions and increasing water demands. Energy indices and carbon and water footprint are useful tools in assessing the interaction between production systems and environmental impact inside Natura 2000 sites and enhancing ecosystem services. The main aims of this study were to determine and compare energy indices, carbon and water footprint of olive groves, orange and kiwi orchards, and grasslands within and between 2 years, located in a Natura 2000 site, using an adjusted life cycle assessment (LCA) method; and to illustrate the importance of farming systems to ecosystem services. Proportional stratified sampling was used to select 36 farm types (12 olive groves, 12 oranges, and 12 kiwi orchards) and 12 grasslands from the municipality of Amfilochia, western Greece, during 2018 and 2019. Descriptive data analysis, correlational analysis, ANOVA, and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were used to summarize and analyze the data. The main energy contributors for the three farm types were fertilizers and fuel consumption. The only input for the grasslands was animal manure. Energy efficiency showed the highest performance in olive groves followed in descending order by kiwi orchards, grasslands, and orange orchards. Concerning carbon-footprint, the values were the highest for orange orchards, followed in descending order by kiwi orchards, olive groves, and grasslands. Total water footprint values were the highest for grasslands and the lowest for olive groves. For both years, regarding HCA, each cluster consisted of the same ecosystems. According to the abovementioned indices, olive groves and grasslands are the most environmental friendly ecosystems. They could contribute in the environmental protection of the Amvrakikos Gulf, a Natura 2000 site. Kiwi orchards, although they are intensive along with the orange ones, seem to be more friendly to the environment than them and their cultivation in this Natura 2000 area is recommended. Energy indices and carbon and water footprint could be used, in order to highlight the related ecosystem (dis)services.
... grazing and mowing) resulting in either different fallow and succession stages or the substitution by more intensified modern land use. Both means in most cases the decline of endangered and rare species (Leuschner and Ellenberg 2017;Vera 2000;Silva et al. 2019). To reduce the loss of biodiversity, the states of the European Union have adopted the Habitats Directive (HD, or Flora Fauna Habitat Directive, FFH) (Council Directive 92/43/EEC (1992)) as a cornerstone to ensure the conservation of over 1000 rare, threatened or endemic plant and animal species together with their 233 listed habitats within a continental-scale network of Special Areas for Conservation (SAC)-the Natura 2000 network. ...
Land use change and intensification are the most important direct drivers of decreasing biodiversity globally. Therefore, the European Union created the Natura 2000 network to protect endangered species and habitats. Here we are interested how the ambitious European goals are actually implemented studying a Natura 2000 habitat, the “Sarmatic steppe pine forests” (Code 91U0) in a national hotspot of biodiversity in Franconia (Germany). These forests are a relic of the postglacial warm stage, preserved by human land use since the Neolithic, but are now heavily declining due to abandonment of traditional land use practices. Applying a long-term monitoring over 30 years including all existing (> 600) stands and a Random Forest classification model, we show that less than a quarter of the area of 1990 and only about 1% of 1950 still exists. Immigration of spruce and beech and forest conversion was responsible for this massive loss, impacting the light-demanding species composition. However, nearly no conservation efforts were undertaken, and replanting with broadleaved trees is still ongoing even after the designation as protected habitat in 2008. Therefore, these forests demonstrate how land use change and intensification (i.e. global change) continuously endanger a habitat protected by national and European law.
