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Trees act as ecosystem engineers and invasions by exotic tree species profoundly impact recipient communities. Recently, research
on invasive trees has dramatically increased, enabling the assessment of general trends in tree invasion. Analysing 90 studies
dealing with 45 invasive tree species, we conducted a quantitative review and a meta-analysis...
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... [84, [87][88][89] As IAPs devote a greater number of resources to growth and reproduction, they grow faster than native species. [18,37,84,87,90] Phenology In contrast to native species, IAPs can alter their phenological patterns. ...
... Further, to ensure that they continue their invasiveness, they produce allelochemicals that inhibit native plant germination and growth [19,64]. Many IAPs employ these strategies to suppress and outcompete native plant species, eventually changing the structure of the vegetative community to monospecific stands [88]. Additionally, IAPs display some trade-offs between several functional traits to increase their invasiveness, for instance, by allocating enough resources to growth [4,88]. ...
... Many IAPs employ these strategies to suppress and outcompete native plant species, eventually changing the structure of the vegetative community to monospecific stands [88]. Additionally, IAPs display some trade-offs between several functional traits to increase their invasiveness, for instance, by allocating enough resources to growth [4,88]. This means that such IAPs prioritize growth over defense mechanisms, which would enable them to spread invasively [4,21]. ...
Biodiversity and sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are considerably impacted by invasive alien plants (IAPs). Increasing plant invasions in SSA threaten agricultural productivity, biodiversity conservation, and other socioeconomic activities, which in turn put the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in peril. In order to effectively combat IAPs, understanding their functional traits (morphological, physiological, and phenological traits) and integrating them into remote sensing (RS) is vital. While functional traits influence IAPs’ fitness to invade and establish in a new geographical range, RS aids in studying them remotely, delineating and mapping them, and predicting their potential invasions. The information on this study topic was gathered by reviewing various existing studies published between 2000 and 2024. Based on this review, it was deduced that the majority of IAPs are fast-growing (or acquisitive), with a shorter leaf lifespan, bigger leaves, and higher plant height, ultimately resulting in a higher resource acquisition ability. We established further that in SSA, there are limited studies on IAP functional traits and their integration in RS. Many studies conducted in the region focus mostly on IAP distribution. Evidence from prior studies revealed that functional trait remote sensing (FTRS)-based research not only improves detection and mapping but also predicts whether a certain alien plant can become invasive or expand its distribution range. Thus, using the FTRS approach could help IAP management in SSA, ultimately achieving the SDGs. Our review discusses IAP implications in SSA (e.g., Angola, Tanzania, Benin, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Zambia, Burundi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, etc.) and for the achievement of SDGs; functional traits and their impact on alien invasions; and the importance of incorporating functional traits into RS.
... The fast development of tall stems and large leaves would be among these traits (Lloret et al. 2005;Webster et al. 2005;Closset-Kopp et al. 2011). Growth rate appears to be the most efficient predictor of the invasiveness of exotic trees (Lamarque et al. 2011;Castro-Díez et al. 2021) and species of other life forms (Dawson et al. 2011). Crataegus monogyna and S. aucuparia developed a vertical stem at a higher rate than R. magellanicum, the only co-occurring native species with which their growth periods overlapped. ...
The comparison of ecological, phenological, morphological and developmental traits between exotic invasive species and coexisting native species contributes to understand the driving mechanisms of successful invasions. This study aimed to examine which of these traits are related to the invasion of woody plants in the understory of deciduous North Patagonian forests of Argentina.
We compared the phenology, shoot growth rate, number of leaves, biomass allocation, leaf herbivory, and recruitment type of two exotic deciduous trees, Crataegus monogyna and Sorbus aucuparia , with those of four coexisting native woody species (one deciduous, one semi‐deciduous, and two evergreen species).
Spring shoot growth took place several weeks earlier in both exotic species and in the deciduous native species than in the other native species; growth rates were higher in the exotics. Compared to coexisting native species, both exotic species developed shoots that were as long as or longer, had lower biomass allocation to leaves and higher allocation to roots, suffered lower leaf damage by herbivores and exhibited higher seed than vegetative recruitment.
This study supports the idea that a combination of phenological, growth rate and mass allocation traits allow exotic species to preempt resources, thus favouring invasion processes.
... Individually or in combination, plant functional traits may indicate an ecosystem's response to environmental change and can strongly influence ecosystem processes (Cornelissen et al., 2003;Reich et al., 2003). Functional traits are closely linked to disturbances such as fire, biological invasion, and land use change (Verheyen et al., 2003;Pausas et al., 2004;Lamarque et al., 2011). Plant biodiversity, biomass, and functional traits are thus affected by environmental perturbation and may be useful in illuminating the resource acquisition and allocation strategies plants adopt in environments experiencing different types of disturbance. ...
Disturbance alters environmental conditions in forests. Plants growing in forests with different disturbance histories in diverse environments may adopt varying life history strategies, but few studies focus on this effect. This study comprehensively investigated plant biodiversity, biomass, and functional traits in subtropical forests with two different disturbance histories in east China to explore differences in life history strategies. Biodiversity was slightly higher in disturbed compared to conserved forests. Significantly higher biomass was measured in conserved relative to disturbed evergreen broadleaved forests (P < 0.05). In conserved forests, leaf tissue density (LTD) was significantly higher and leaf thickness (LT), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), twig tissue density (TTD), twig dry matter content (TDMC), bark tissue density (BTD) and dry matter content (BDMC), and stem tissue density (STD) and dry matter content (SDMC) were significantly lower than in disturbed forests (P < 0.05). In terms of associated plant biodiversity, biomass, and functional traits, conserved forests adopted a resource acquisition strategy, reducing biodiversity and developing multiple functional traits such as high leaf area and specific leaf area and low LT, LDMC, TTD, TDMC, BTD, BDMC, STD, and SDMC to support a high biomass accumulation rate. Disturbed forests adopted a resource conservation strategy, enhancing biodiversity and developing converse trait combinations to lower the rate of biomass accumulation. A comprehensive investigation of plant biodiversity, biomass, and functional traits and subsequent assessment of plant life history strategies in conserved and disturbed forests will aid investigations of regional biodiversity and carbon reserves, contribute data to the TRY and Chinese plant trait databases, and improve ecological management and restoration efforts in east China.
... For example, differences in invasiveness among pine species (Pinus) were explained by only three traits (seed mass, length of juvenile period, and interval between seed mast years) (Rejmánek and Richardson, 1996). A meta-analysis focused on tree species found growth rate, density or cover, germination, survival, and biomass to be significantly associated with invasiveness (Lamarque et al., 2011). A literature synthesis found also support for the role of allelochemicals since native plants were more strongly suppressed by leachates (potential allelochemicals) of naturalized alien plants than by leachates of other native species (Zhang et al., 2021). ...
... This has been demonstrated specifically for pine species (Richardson et al. 1994;Grotkopp et al. 2002). In a meta-analysis from Lamarque et al. (2011), the relative growth rate appeared to be the most efficient predictor of trees invasiveness. Overall, it emerges from previous studies that invasive woody species display an acquisitive strategy, with higher values than non-invasive exotic species for traits such as RGR, SLA, height and shoot-root ratio (Porté et al. 2011;Gallagher et al. 2014;Shouman et al. 2020). ...
... Previous studies have found relationships between invasiveness of trees and seedlings' RGR. In a metaanalysis by Lamarque et al. (2011), RGR was identified as a key-trait in predicting the invasiveness of tree species. In this study, we did not find a significant relationship between RGR and local nor global invasiveness, regardless of its positive correlation with RHGR. ...
Many exotic conifer species have been introduced for wood production in temperate regions. Some of these species can display an invasive behavior and negatively impact native ecosystems. It is therefore crucial to identify potentially invasive species before they are widely planted. Seedling high relative growth rate (RGR) and specific leaf area (SLA) have been associated with enhanced invasiveness of trees in previous studies. However, it has been mainly demonstrated for light-demanding species in disturbed habitats, less for shade-tolerant species in closed forests. Here, we investigated the link between seedlings growth traits of 15 exotic conifer species and invasiveness considered at both global and local scale. Seedlings were grown outdoor, under a shade net, and harvested after 4 and 10 weeks. RGR, SLA, Shoot–Root ratio, shoot relative growth rate, relative height growth rate (RHGR) and relative needles production rate were measured. We developed a continuous approach to position each species along a gradient of invasiveness. Local invasiveness consists of a value based on regeneration densities and dispersal distances observed in forest arboreta in Southern Belgium, and is therefore related to the ability of species to invade closed forest ecosystems. Global invasiveness was calculated based on the GBIF Database and the Global Compendium of Weeds, and encompasses all potentially invaded habitats. It appeared that RHGR was positively related to both local and global invasiveness, while SLA was positively related to local invasiveness only. However, RGR was not significantly related with local nor global invasiveness. This study indicates that preferential investment in rapid vertical growth associated with fast resource acquisition is a strategy enhancing invasiveness of non-native conifers, also in closed, shaded temperate forests.
... Both meta-analyses provide valuable information but analyse quite different things. Several meta-analyses combine different metrics into a single effect size (and, in two cases, different factors into a single effect size: Lamarque et al. 2011;Felker-Quinn et al., 2013;Figure 5), likely increasing uncertainty and variance around that effect size due to underlying methodological differences, which can result in apparent context dependence (Catford et al., 2022). ...
The enemy release hypothesis (ERH) is the best-known hypothesis explaining high performance (e.g. rapid population growth) of exotic species. However, the current framing of the ERH does not explicitly link evidence of enemy release with exotic performance. This leads to uncertainty regarding the role of enemy release in biological invasions. Here, we demonstrate that the effect of enemy release on exotic performance is the product of three factors: enemy impact, enemy diversity, and host adaptation. These factors are modulated by seven contexts: time since introduction, resource availability, phylogenetic relatedness of exotic and native species, host–enemy asynchronicity, number of introduction events, type of enemy, and strength of growth–defence trade-offs. ERH-focused studies frequently test different factors under different contexts. This can lead to inconsistent findings, which typifies current evidence for the ERH. For example, over 80% of meta-analyses fail to consider ecological contexts which can alter study findings; we demonstrate this by re-analysing a recent ERH synthesis. Structuring the ERH around factors and contexts promotes generalisable predictions about when and where exotic species may benefit from enemy release, empowering effective management. Our mechanistic factor–context framework clearly lays out the evidence required to support the ERH, unifies many enemy-related invasion hypotheses, and enhances predictive capacity.
... For example, differences in invasiveness among pine species (Pinus) were explained by only three traits (seed mass, length of juvenile period, and interval between seed mast years) (Rejmánek and Richardson, 1996). A meta-analysis focused on tree species found growth rate, density or cover, germination, survival, and biomass to be significantly associated with invasiveness (Lamarque et al., 2011). A literature synthesis found also support for the role of allelochemicals since native plants were more strongly suppressed by leachates (potential allelochemicals) of naturalized alien plants than by leachates of other native species (Zhang et al., 2021). ...
... Both meta-analyses provide valuable information but analyse quite different things. Several meta-analyses combine different metrics into a single effect size (and, in two cases, different factors into a single effect size: Lamarque et al. 2011;Felker-Quinn et al., 2013;Figure 5), likely increasing uncertainty and variance around that effect size due to underlying methodological differences, which can result in apparent context dependence (Catford et al., 2022). ...
The enemy release hypothesis (ERH) is the best-known hypothesis explaining high performance (e.g., rapid population growth) of exotic species. However, the current framing of the ERH does not explicitly link evidence of enemy release with exotic performance. This leads to uncertainty regarding the role of enemy release in biological invasions. Here we demonstrate that the effect of enemy release on exotic performance is the product of three factors: enemy impact, enemy diversity, and host adaptation. These factors are modulated by seven contexts: time since introduction, resource availability, phylogenetic relatedness of exotic and native species, host-enemy asynchronicity, number of introduction events, type of enemy, and strength of growth-defence trade-offs. ERH-focused studies frequently test different factors under different contexts, leading to inconsistent findings, which characterise current evidence for the ERH. For example, over 80% of meta-analyses fail to consider ecological contexts that can modulate study findings; we demonstrate this by re-analysing a recent ERH synthesis. Structuring the ERH around factors and contexts promotes generalisable predictions about when and where exotic species may benefit from enemy release, empowering effective management. Our mechanistic factor-context framework clearly lays out the evidence required to support the ERH, unifies many enemy-related invasion hypotheses and enhances predictive capacity.
... However, this hypothesis might play a specific role during the naturalisation process in silver maple (much lower fruit production and dispersal as well as phenotypic plasticity will probably hinder its proceeding to invasive behaviour). This knowledge is in line with a meta-analysis published by Lamarque et al. (2011) recognising several hypotheses simultaneously explaining tree invasions. Furthermore, my observations and recent literature sources revealed no regulatory pest of silver maple and palm maple in the Central Europe but recorded a powdery mildew (Sawadaea bicornis (Wallr.) ...
Maples (Acer sp.) are trees/shrubs of extraordinary aesthetic value, what favours them for wide utilisation in urban greenery. However, some of the non-native species became invasive in the new range and represent a threat to natural ecosystems. Therefore, after the definition of their frequency and planting history in Slovak cities and reinvestigation of ecological status, based on analysis of growth, reproduction biology, fruit dispersal, phenotypic plasticity and allelopathic potential, invasion hypotheses related to the species fitness were tested in non-invasive alien species, in respect of invasive box elder (A. negundo L.). Parks and residential areas from the socialistic era were dominated by silver maple (A. saccharinum L.) and private gardens by palm maple (A. palmatum Thunb.) cultivars. A shift to ´locally naturalised´ was confirmed in the former, and palm maple was taken into consideration in the alien flora list (as casual). The fastest growth was found in silver maple and box elder. The latter showed also extraordinary reproduction earliness, largest fruit production, flight range and seed viability. Specific leaf area mostly decreased in box elder towards summer, indicating its large phenotypic plasticity. However, the largest allelopathic effect was observed in silver maple. Hence, ´limiting similarity hypothesis´, ´ideal weed hypothesis´, ´propagule pressure hypothesis´ and ´phenotypic plasticity hypothesis´ were essential for box elder invasion success. On the other hand, ´ideal weed hypothesis´ and ´novel weapon hypothesis´ seem to be crucial for silver maple naturalisation. Palm maple failed in all studied aspects, indicating colonisation stage of the invasion process.
... Woody vegetation invasions are rapidly increasing around the world (Lamarque et al., 2011;Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011). The major geographical source regions of invasive tree families are South America and Australia for Fabaceae (Rejmánek, 2014), of which the genus Acacia, and particularly taxa in the subgenus Phyllodineae that is native to Australia are predominant (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011); North America and Europe for Pinaceae (Rejmánek, 2014), predominated by the genus Pinus (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011); Eurasia for Salicaceae (Rejmánek, 2014), dominated with genera such as Flacourtia, Populus, and Salix (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011); Asia for Rosaceae shrubs (Rejmánek, 2014), with the Rubus, Cotoneaster, Rosa, and Pyracantha genera dominating this family (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011); and tropical and subtropical regions for Arecaceae (Rejmánek, 2014), dominated with Aiphanes, Areca, Archontophoenix, Phoenix, and Washingtonia, among other genera (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011). ...
... Overall, multiple factors determine the success of invasive tree species. For example, in a review analysis of 90 studies with 45 invasive tree species, the tree's growth rate-and particularly stem elongation, which improves the individual competitiveness for sunlight-was proposed to be predominant (Lamarque et al., 2011). However, this effect seems to rule in non-dryland regions, where sunlight encompasses the major limiting factor. ...
... Alongside with soil-water, the root systems of these plants attain limited nutrients, such as soil's nitrate-nitrogen (NO 3 -N, see Leakey et al., 1999), further augmenting their competitiveness. The importance of other factors, such as seed mass, mechanism of seed dispersal (Lamarque et al., 2011;Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011), germination rate, length of juvenility, individual's biomass, and herbivory resistance, seem to be more case-dependent (Lamarque et al., 2011). Regarding seed dispersal, zoochory may accelerate tree invasion through external or internal transport mechanisms. ...
Land degradation and desertification are widespread across the world’s drylands. These processes are substantially affected by climatic change, with long-term and severe droughts on the one hand, and high intensity rainstorms and devastating floods on the other hand. Simultaneously, land-use change and mismanagement practices have led to processes of accelerated soil erosion, depletion of soil organic carbon pools, and the degradation of extensive drylands. Forestry has been accepted as an effective means for restoring degraded drylands, and for attaining a range of regulating, provisioning, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. Specifically, forestry is widely perceived as an effective means for soil erosion control, organic carbon sequestration, microclimate improvement, and climate change mitigation. However, forestry in drylands often proves to generate substantial environmental challenges, resulting in deterioration of ecosystem functions and health. The objective of this essay is to review the challenges and opportunities induced by dryland afforestation and reforestation, and highlight the need to attain climate-smart strategies for establishing and managing these land-uses. Particularly, tree species invasion and allelopathy, which are common in dryland forestry projects, jeopardize species richness and diversity of native vegetation communities. Further, the challenges linked with tree invasiveness necessitate predicting the distribution of potentially invasive species and foreseeing their impacts on the recipient ecosystems under projected climate change scenarios. The effect of allelopathy is significant under limited water availability conditions and is expected to be determined by the expanding drylands and intensifying aridity worldwide. Therefore, judicious selection of tree species should not only focus on ones with high water-use efficiency, low flammability, high pest resistance, and fast growth, but also on low invasiveness and allelopathic capacities. Insights of this essay may be used by land managers, stakeholders, and policy makers involved in environmental development of drylands.
