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Light trap design. From top: solar light source (taken from landscape lights), aluminum reflector, plastic funnel, and removable centrifuge tube (made by coring and gluing the cap to the funnel tip).
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Termites are economically-important structural pests, costing residents of Hawaii over $100 million annually. On Oahu, the last published termite swarming survey occurred from 1969 to 1971, and the last termite hand-collection survey occurred from 1998 to 2000. To contribute data on termite occurrences on Oahu, a light-trap survey took place from F...
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Fruiting papaya trees (Carica papaya L. cv. Solo), grown on “aa” lava soil at Puna, Hawaii, were supplied K fertilizer at rates of 0, .208, and .519 lb. K/tree/6 weeks. Leaves at 2 stages of maturity were sampled for K analysis. The method of curvilinear regression was used to relate leaf K to yield of papaya.
The multiple correlation coefficients...
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... Studies on alate swarming patterns, foraging activities [13][14][15], and susceptibility of exotic forest tree species to Asian subterranean termites [16][17][18] were not inclusive with reliable information on the diversity of C. gestroi. Few studies involving other termite species have suggested gene flow and genetic differentiation among populations from various ecological niches [19,20]. ...
Coptotermes termites were collected from forestry habitats at University Sains Malaysia, Penang, while urban samples were collected from residentials from Penang and Kedah, Malaysia. Mitochondrial DNA markers, Cytochrome Oxidase 1 (CO1), and 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) genes were amplified and sequenced to confirm the species of the termite samples as Coptotermes gestroi. Through Blastn, all 25 CO1 and 16S rRNA sequences, respectively from urban and natural habitats were found to be 99.54–100.00 % similar to C. gestroi reference sequences from previous studies in Peninsular Malaysia. The phylogenetic trees constructed using Neighboring-joining (NJ) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) methods resulted in CO1 sequences clustering in two clades and 16S rRNA sequences clustering in a single clade. The overall mean distance was low for the C. gestroi populations from natural habitats and urban settings (FST = 0.004). Analysis of natural habitat populations using CO1 sequences revealed two haplotypes within the population, with a haplotype diversity (Hd) of 0.045 ± 0.005, while the urban population shared a common haplotype with the natural habitat populations and there was no haplotype diversity recorded between the populations. Urban and natural habitats included only one haplotype for 16S rRNA sequences, indicating a lack of nucleotide diversity. Based on the findings, a non-significant difference between the natural habitat and urban population suggests C. gestroi inhabiting both regions likely originated from a similar source and underwent population homogeneity in different settings facilitated by anthropogenic dispersal.
... It is now confirmed that in areas with overlapped distributions, multiple potential simultaneous flight events have occurred each year since about 2010 in Florida, and most likely for many decades in Taiwan. While the dispersal flight seasons of the two Coptotermes species also partially overlap in Hawai'i, simultaneous flight events have not been confirmed there (Tong et al., 2017). ...
... Coptotermes gestroi was not reported in Hawai'i again until 1999 when it infested two residential structures in the former military housing community of Kalaeloa, a structure nearby Ewa Beach, seagrape trees (Coccoloba uvifera [L.] L.) at Ewa Beach Park, and a building at Hickam Airforce Base, all on the island of Oahu (Woodrow et al., 2001). According to the last survey in 2012, C. gestroi alates were collected only in Kalaeloa (Tong et al., 2017). However, pest control professionals subsequently found two infested homes in nearby Makakilo (J.K. Grace, Hawai'i, 2023, personal communication). ...
... However, the authors dismissed that direct competition from C. formosanus limits the foraging population size and colony boundary. Habitat suitability for C. gestroi may be a factor in constraining its population size, colony boundary, and distribution (Uchima and Grace, 2003;Chiu et al., 2016;Tong et al., 2017). ...
... In Taiwan, the dispersal flight season of C. gestroi started in mid-March and peaked in mid-April, while the flight of C. formosanus started a month later, in late April or early May, with a major swarm occurring in late May (Huang et al., 2022). Coptotermes gestroi alates were observed in Hawai'i in April-July (Tong et al., 2017). In general, C. gestroi alates swarm about a month before the peak of C. formosanus swarming (Tong et al., 2017). ...
The Asian subterranean termite, Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann), is a successful urban exploiter endemic to Southeast Asia. Over the past century, anthropogenic activity has spread this species far beyond its native range. Besides the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, C. gestroi is the most economically important and invasive subterranean termite species. Despite its pest status, the lack of robust diagnostic characters in Coptotermes has resulted in many taxonomic challenges. Such ambiguity of taxonomical status has impeded an in-depth understanding of the species. This chapter presents the life history of C. gestroi, foraging and tunneling behaviors, and survival and swarming activity under different environments. This information is relevant to understand how the species thrives in the urban environment and achieves its pest status. The chapter also discusses the use of liquid termiticides and termite baiting and other methods against this species, the predicted future spread, and future research directions.
... With anthropogenic activities, both species have been introduced and established in the United States (US) (Chouvenc et al. 2016, Blumenfeld et al. 2021. Now, these two invasive termites species occur sympatrically in US, including Hawaii and Florida, Taiwan, and China (Li et al. 2009, Chouvenc et al. 2015b, Tong et al. 2017). These two termite species produce alates simultaneously during dispersal flight seasons since 2013 in Florida and hybridization was confirmed in the laboratory, showing interspecies mating (Chouvenc et al. 2015b. ...
Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and C. gestroi (Wasmann) are economically important structural pests in urban areas. Due to anthropogenic activity, both species have been introduced into the United States, with their respective invasive ranges now overlapping in Florida, and the two species have the capability to hybridize. The potential for structural damage from subterranean termite colonies primarily depends on colony size. However, long-term colony growth and wood consumption capabilities of hybrid Coptotermes colonies remain to be investigated, to determine the potential pest status of field-established hybrid colonies. In this study, we investigated long-term colony development over four years to determine if aging hybrid colonies display vigor in terms of colony growth. In addition, we compared wood consumption rate of hybrid colonies to compare their potential impact as structural pests with the two parental species. In aging colonies (four-year-old), both hybrid mating types displayed a colony growth equivalent to C. formosanus. However, the wood consumption rates of four-year-old colonies of the two parental Coptotermes species and their hybrids were similar, indicating equal damaging potential. We also found multiple secondary reproductives in hybrid colonies, even in the presence of primary reproductives, which may favor their potential establishment and spread. Although hybrid colonies or hybrid alates have yet to be detected in the field, our results suggest that such hybrid colonies would be an additional termite threat in the future if they were established in the field.
... A total of 3106 species of termites were reported globally, while 371 of them were counted the most destructive and caused severe damages to human properties (Krishna et al., 2013). The massive economic losses were considered more than 40 billion dollars per year in the world (Rust and Su, 2012;Chouvenc et al., 2015Chouvenc et al., , 2016Tong et al., 2017). Rawat (2002) estimated the cost of chemical control of termites in the U.S.A is higher than the loss caused by the annual storm. ...
... North), Gansu Wenxian county (33° North latitude), Westward to Tibet Medog (29.5° North latitude) (Li et al., 2009;Husseneder et al., 2012b;Li et al., 2013b;Tong et al., 2017;Su et al., 2017), which connects a line formed by each point from Northeast to Southwest and termites distributed in the Southeast of the boundary line. Termite species in two provinces such as Yunnan and Hainan distributed, which also have the soil termite genus, that spread up to the parts of China, they cause severe damages than other termite groups (Li et al., 2011a;Hu and Song, 2014;Cao and Jiang, 2014;Soleymaninejadian et al., 2014;Su et al., 2017). ...
Termites are known as social insects worldwide. Presently in China 473 species, 44 genera and 4 families of termites have been reported. Of them, 111 Reticulitermes species are widely spread in different zones of China. The dispersion flight season of these Chinese Reticulitermes species are usually started from February to June, but in some regions different species are distributed, sharing their boundaries and having overlapping flight seasons. These reasons become important sources of hybridization between two different heterospecific populations of termites. It was confirmed that the fertilized eggs and unfertilized eggs of some Reticulitermes termites have the capacity of cleavage. While the unfertilized eggs of R. aculabialis, R. chinensis and R. labralis cleaved normally and the only R. aculabialis unfertilized eggs develop in embryos. While, the R. flaviceps and R. chinensis were observed with their abnormal embryonic development, and not hatching of eggs parthenogenetically. They were reported more threatening to Chinese resources as they propagate with parthenogenesis, hybridization and sexual reproduction. Eggshell and macrophiles of eggs play important roles in species identification and control. Although, they are severe pests and cause a wide range of damages to wooden structures and products in homes, buildings, building materials, trees, crops, and forests in China's Mainland.
... Major drywood termite species found in Hawaii include Cryptotermes brevis, Incisitermes immigrans, and Neotermes connexus [1][2][3]. Among these species, the West Indian dry-Insects 2021, 12, 1090 2 of 12 wood termite, C. brevis, is the most damaging and prevalent in structures and has been recorded in Hawaii since 1884 [4]. ...
With heat treatments to control drywood termites (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae), the presence of heat sinks causes heat to be distributed unevenly throughout the treatment areas. Drywood termites may move to galleries in heat sink areas to avoid exposure to lethal temperatures. Our studies were conducted in Crytotermes brevis-infested condominiums in Honolulu, Hawaii to reflect real-world condominium scenarios; either a standard heat treatment performed by a heat remediation company, or an improved heat treatment was used. For improved treatments, heated air was directed into the toe-kick voids of C. brevis infested cabinets to reduce heat sink effects and increase heat penetration into these difficult-to-heat areas. Eight thermistor sensors placed inside the toe-kick voids, treatment zone, embedded inside cabinets’ sidewalls, and in a wooden cube recorded target temperatures of above 46 ◦C or 50 ◦C for 120 min. Pre-treatment and follow-up inspections were performed at 6 months posttreatment to monitor termite inactivity using visual observations and by recording the numbers of spiked peaks on a microwave technology termite detection device (Termatrac). In improved treatment condominiums, significantly higher numbers of spiked peaks were recorded at pre-treatment as compared to 6 months posttreatment. Efficacious heat treatment protocols using the improved methods are proposed.
... Major drywood termite species found in Hawaii include Cryptotermes brevis, Incisitermes immigrans, and Neotermes connexus [1][2][3]. Among these species, the West Indian drywood termite, C. brevis, is the most damaging and prevalent in structures and has been recorded in Hawaii since 1884 [4]. ...
With heat treatments to control drywood termites (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae), the presence of heat sinks causes heat to be distributed unevenly throughout the treatment areas. Drywood termites may move to galleries in heat sink areas to avoid exposure to lethal temperatures. Our studies were conducted in Crytotermes brevis-infested condominiums in Honolulu, Hawaii to reflect real-world condominium scenarios; either a standard heat treatment performed by a heat remediation company or an improved heat treatment was used. For improved treatments, heated air was directed into the toe-kick voids of C. brevis infested cabinets to reduce heat sink effects and increase the heat penetration into these difficult-to-heat areas. Eight thermistor sensors placed inside toe-kick voids, treatment zone, embedded inside cabinets’ sidewalls, and in a wooden cube recorded target temperatures of above 46 °C or 50 °C for 120 minutes. A pretreatment and follow-up inspections were performed at 6 months posttreatment to monitor termite inactivity using visual observations and by recording the numbers of spiked peaks on a microwave technology termite detection device (Termatrac). In improved treatment condominiums, significantly higher numbers of spiked peaks were recorded at pretreatment as compared to 6 months posttreatment. Efficacious heat treatment protocols using the improved methods are proposed.
... The occurrence of precipitation in areas with marked seasonality is generally expected to be the main variable influencing this activity since the flight period of most species is associated with the rainy season (Nutting & Haverty 1976;Nutting 1979) and the flights of some species occur shortly after precipitation events (Nalepa et al. 2001;Mitchell 2008;Harit et al. 2014). However, some studies have shown that several other environmental factors can act as predictors of these events, such as temperature, humidity and, less frequently, wind speed and atmospheric pressure (Nutting 1969;Medeiros et al. 1999;Martius 2003;Neoh & Lee 2009;Nasir & Akhtar 2011;Tong et al. 2017;Sugio et al. 2018). ...
Termite dispersal flights (Blattodea: Termitoidae) are influenced by several factors that are intrinsic and extrinsic to colonies and vary according to the environment and target species. This study aimed to evaluate the main characteristics of the dispersal flights of a termite community and the environmental variables related to these flights in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest, situated in the semiarid region of north-eastern Brazil. The alates were collected with trays placed on the ground. Sampling was carried out over a year, with weekly trap reviews. Flight peaks started in February; i.e. these events were more frequent and alates from all species were captured. The trays were checked daily for 40 days during this period. A principal coordinate analysis was performed to determine the response variables and, after that, a generalised linear model was performed to analyse the relationship between these variables and environmental variations. Alates of 37 species were captured and the community flight pattern proved to be synchronised and highly temporally concentrated, regardless of family, subfamily or even genera. The daily sampling analysis showed that 97% of species flights occurred between the 13th and 33rd days following the start of the 40 days of daily revisions. The number of flight occurrences and species composition were significantly influenced by the accumulated precipitation over 72 h and air density. The latter variable was evaluated for the first time in this type of study. The high synchronism between species may be related to the brief period in which arid and semiarid ecosystems have the correct conditions for alate flights, which is different to alate flight occurrence in tropical rainforests, where the environmental conditions usually allow termites to fly throughout the entire year.
... Major drywood termite species found in Hawaii include Cryptotermes brevis, Incisitermes immigrans, and Neotermes connexus [1][2][3]. Among these species, the West Indian drywood termite, C. brevis, is the most damaging and prevalent in structures and has been recorded in Hawaii since 1884 [4]. ...
With heat treatments to control drywood termites (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae), the presence of heat sinks, which have insulating properties, causes heat to be distributed unevenly throughout the treatment areas. Drywood termites may move to galleries in heat sink areas to avoid exposure to lethal temperatures. To mitigate heat sink effect, studies were conducted in Crytotermes brevis-infested homes in Honolulu, Hawaii to reflect real-world scenarios; either a standard heat treatment performed by a heat remediation company or improved heat treatment methods were used. For improved treatments, heated air was directed into the toe-kick voids of cabinets to reduce heat sink effects. Eight thermistor sensors were placed inside toe-kick voids, in the treatment zone, embedded inside cabinets or the sidewall, or in a wooden cube to monitor internal and ambient temperatures to ensure sufficiently high heat reached all areas. Target temperatures above 46 °C or 50 °C were recorded in all areas for 120 minutes. A pretreatment inspection was conducted, and follow-up inspections were performed at 6 months posttreatment to confirm termite inactivity using visual observations and a Termatrac device. In improved treatment homes, no termite activity was found after treatment. Efficacious heat treatment protocols for structures using the improved method are proposed.
... Winged termites can disperse over 800 m. Most studies on termites reveal that the emergence of alates usually occurs during the middle of the year, which corresponds to Malaysia's annual rainy season between July and November (Tong et al., 2017). ...
The subterranean termite Globitermes sulphureus (Blattodea: Termitidae) can be found
in tropical regions. We chose seven novel species-specific microsatellite markers to
infer the breeding pattern of G. sulphureus based on its colony and population genetic
structure in eight selected populations (natural-n = 4 and metropolitan-n = 4) in Kedah
and Penang, Malaysia. A strong correlation with their geographical location is shown by
the acquired genetic gap for all studied populations from this study. The breeding pattern
of family structure and comparisons of estimated F-statistics among G. sulphureus
workers suggests 60% of all colonies are mixed families, whereas the remaining are
simple families. Average relatedness values within simple and mixed family colonies
are similar (r = 0.121). Positive fixation index FST values (FST = 0.086) indicate all eight
populations (>500 m apart) have a significantly moderate genetic differentiation and
low levels of inbreeding based on the low overall inbreeding coefficient FIT value of
0.391. Furthermore, four populations; Palapes USM (PU), Tmn Astana (TA), Kg Teluk
(KT), and Penang National Park (NP), deviate from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE,
all p = 0.000) and five studied polymorphic loci (GS1, GS10, GS15, GS27 and GS29) are
possibly under selection. The findings also reveal signs of a bottleneck effect in two
populations: Tikam Batu (TB) and Penang National Park (NP), indicating genetic drift.
