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Light micrographs of Ijuhya vitellina, formation of microsclerotia. (A-F) Transformation of hyphae into (A-D) chlamydospore or dictyochlamydospore-like structures, and (E, F) microsclerotia. (G-I) Coiling or coalescence of dictyochlamydospore-like structures. (J) Microsclerotia densely arranged in a chain. (K-N) Pigmentation first observed (K) in cell walls, and later (L-M) intensifying throughout microsclerotia. (O) A single microsclerotium inoculated on agar surface developing hyphae. A-I, K-N: from PDA, J: from CMA, O: from PDA 1/3. Scale bars: (A, C, E-I, K, L, O) = 30 μm; B, J = 50 μm; D = 200 μm; (M, N) = 10 μm. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180032.g004
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Cyst nematodes are globally important pathogens in agriculture. Their sedentary lifestyle and long-term association with the roots of host plants render cyst nematodes especially good targets for attack by parasitic fungi. In this context fungi were specifically isolated from nematode eggs of the cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi. Here, Iju...
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... 4 Since then, a variety of different fungi associated with plant parasitic nematodes were found. 5 They include but are not limited to the following: Ijuhya vitellina, 6 Niesslia gamsii, 7 Polydomus karssenii, 8,9 and Pochonia chlamydosporia. 10 Studies of the secondary metabolites of these fungi showed that they can be prolific producers of biologically active secondary metabolites. ...
... For instance, Ijuhya vitellina produces cytotoxic cytochalasans of the chaetoglobosin type and the oligopeptides named leucinostatins with nematicidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans. 6,11 Arthrichitins A and B produced by P. karssenii showed moderate activity against the host cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi. 8,9 The present study deals with the secondary metabolism of two further, hitherto unexplored strains of the recently described species Polyphilus sieberi that were isolated from eggs of the cereal cyst nematode H. filipjevi collected from wheat fields in Turkey. ...
... 8,9 The present study deals with the secondary metabolism of two further, hitherto unexplored strains of the recently described species Polyphilus sieberi that were isolated from eggs of the cereal cyst nematode H. filipjevi collected from wheat fields in Turkey. 12 Herein, we describe the purification and structure elucidation up to the absolute configurations of two previously undescribed chlorinated cyclotetrapeptides (1−2), a new pyranonaphthoquinone (3) and a new dimeric 6,6′-binaphtho-α-pyranone derivative (4) together with nine known metabolites, namely, talaroderxine C (5), 13 gliovirin-like compounds outovirins A (6) and C (7) 14 along with trichodermamide C (8), 15 peniciadametizine B (9), 16 ophiocordylongiiside A (10), 17 two fusidane triterpenes fusidic acid (11), 18,19 3-ketofusidic acid (12), 18,19 and lumichromone (13) 20 from different total extracts of the two nematode eggs-associated strains P. sieberi 17A and 17C. Selected compounds were subjected to antimicrobial, antibiofilm, cytotoxicity, and nematicidal activities, and herein we report their results. ...
Chemical exploration for two isolates of the recently described ascomycete species Polyphilus sieberi, derived from the eggs of the plant parasitic nematode Heterodera filipjevi, afforded the identification of many compounds that belong to various metabolite families: two previously undescribed chlorinated cyclotetrapeptides, omnipolyphilins A (1) and B (2), one new pyranonaphthoquinone, ventiloquinone P (3), a 6,6′-binaphto-α-pyranone dimer, talaroderxine D (4) in addition to nine known metabolites (5−13) were isolated from this biocontrol candidate. All isolated compounds were characterized by comprehensive 1D, 2D NMR, and HR-ESI-MS analyses. The absolute configurations of the cyclotetrapeptides were determined by a combination of advanced Marfey's method, ROE correlation aided by conformational analysis, and TDDFT-ECD calculations, while ECD calculations, Mosher's method, and experimental ECD spectra were used for ventiloquinone P (3) and talaroderxine D (4). Among the isolated compounds, talaroderxine D (4) showed potent antimicrobial activities against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values of 2.1 and 8.3 μg mL −1 , respectively. Additionally, promising inhibitory effects on talaroderxine D (4) against the formation of S. aureus biofilms were observed up to a concentration of 0.25 μg mL −1. Moreover, ophiocordylongiiside A (10) showed activity against the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.
... From a Sanghuangporus species obtained in Kenya, metabolites (3, 14′-bihispidinyl and hispidin and phelligridin L) with mild nematicidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans have been identifed [176]. Recent studies have shown that chaetoglobosin A and its derivative 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin A, which were isolated from Ijuhya vitellina, have nematicidal activity against the eggs of Heterodera flipjevi [177]. ...
Secondary metabolites are hidden gems in mushrooms. Understanding these secondary metabolites’ biological and pharmacological efects can be aided by identifying them. Te purpose of this work was to profle the mycochemical components of the extracts of Auricularia auricula judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor to comprehend their biological and pharmacological capabilities. Mushroom samples were collected from Kenya’s Arabuko–Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests and identifed using morphological and molecular techniques. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents were used to extract the mycochemical components. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyze the chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of all the species examined. A total of 51 compounds were isolated from all extracts and classifed as carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehydes, fatty aldehydes, isoprenoid lipids, and steroids. Tetracosamethyl-cyclododecasiloxane (18.90%), oleic acid (72.90%), phenol, 2, 6-bis (1, 1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, and methylcarbamate (26.56%) were all found in high concentrations in A. auricular judae, M. xanthopus, T. umkowaani, T. elegans, and T. versicolor, respectively. Fatty acids make up the majority of the compounds isolated from the T. elegans chloroform extract and the T. umkowaani 70% ethanol extract, respectively. Particularly, these fatty acids play crucial roles in the anti-infammatory, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and antibioflm formation activities. Tese bioactive elements indicate that the extracts of fve wild mushrooms may be reliable sources of secondary metabolites for therapeutic development. Terefore, additional research is required to comprehend the usefulness of these chemicals in many functional areas and to improve the present understanding of macrofungi.
... [78] was tested for its actin network disruptive capabilities in human osteosarcoma cells (U-2 OS), which was monitored by visualization of the actin cytoskeleton with fluorescently-labeled phalloidin. The results suggested that an α-β unsaturated bond between C-19 and C-20 in the macrocycle next to In summary, the majority of published literature on the effects of different cytochalasans still suffers from a lack of unified test strategies, concentrations, or cellular model systems (see [55][56][57]59,61,67,69,85,[93][94][95] to cite a few), although this is about to change in the near future (see below). Nevertheless, the aforementioned studies proved to be highly valuable for qualitative comparisons. ...
... Structures of cytochalasans(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)(91)(92)(93)(94)(95)(96) tested byHirose et al. (1985) [85] and chaetoglobosin G (97) and isochaetoglobosin D (98) byThohinung et al. 2010 [92].Our recently published natural product isolation campaigns using a strain of the Dothideomycete Sparticola triseptata and other Sordariomycetes strived to improve the comparability of treatment conditions. A large panel of cytochalasans(1, 2, 4, 48, 51, 53, 57, 61, 99-115; see Figures 2, 4, 6 and 9) reported by ...
The eukaryotic actin cytoskeleton comprises the protein itself in its monomeric and filamen-tous forms, G-and F-actin, as well as multiple interaction partners (actin-binding proteins, ABPs). This gives rise to a temporally and spatially controlled, dynamic network, eliciting a plethora of motility-associated processes. To interfere with the complex inter-and intracellular interactions the actin cytoskeleton confers, small molecular inhibitors have been used, foremost of all to study the relevance of actin filaments and their turnover for various cellular processes. The most prominent inhibitors act by, e.g., sequestering monomers or by interfering with the polymerization of new filaments and the elongation of existing filaments. Among these inhibitors used as tool compounds are the cytochalasans, fungal secondary metabolites known for decades and exploited for their F-actin polymerization inhibitory capabilities. In spite of their application as tool compounds for decades, comprehensive data are lacking that explain (i) how the structural deviances of the more than 400 cy-tochalasans described to date influence their bioactivity mechanistically and (ii) how the intricate network of ABPs reacts (or adapts) to cytochalasan binding. This review thus aims to summarize the information available concerning the structural features of cytochalasans and their influence on the described activities on cell morphology and actin cytoskeleton organization in eukaryotic cells.
... However, nematodes often resist these strategies as they quickly adapt and form even more aggressive pathotypes (Castagnone-Sereno, 2002). A broad range of bacteria and fungi has shown potential to directly or indirectly reduce nematode infection in plants (Westphal & Becker, 1999;Eberlein et al., 2016;Giné et al., 2016;Hamid et al., 2017;Hussain et al., 2018;Ashrafi et al., 2017;Nuaima et al., 2021). These microbes use antibiosis (Siddiqui et al., 2005), parasitism (Chen & Dickson, 1998), induce systemic resistance in plants (Martínez-Medina et al., 2017;Poveda et al., 2020), or employ a combination of different strategies that can inhibit nematode activity and invasion in plants (Martínez-Medina et al., 2017). ...
We investigated if activity of the pre-infective juveniles (J2s) of root-knot nematodes is linked to the recruitment of a specific microbiome on the nematode surface and/or to the composition of the surrounding microbiota. For this, we determined the J2 activity (active vs. non-motile that referred to dead and immobile J2s) upon a 3-day incubation in soil suspensions and studied the composition of bacteria, protists and fungi present on the nematode surface and in the suspensions using amplicon sequencing of the 16S/18S rRNA genes, and ITS region. We also amended suspensions with n CHA0 to study its effects on J2 activity and microbial composition. The J2 activity was suppressed in soil suspensions, but increased when suspensions were amended with P. protegens CHA0. The active and non-motile J2s differed in the composition of surface-attached bacteria, which was altered by the presence of P. protegens CHA0 in the soil suspensions. The bacterial genera Algoriphagus, Pedobacter and Bdellovibrio were enriched on active J2s and may have protected the J2s against antagonists. The incubation time appeared short for attachment of fungi and protists. Altogether, our study is a step forward in disentangling the complex nematode-microbe interactions in soil for more successful nematode control.
... collected in Kenya [157]. Chaetoglobosin A and its derivate 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin A isolated from Ijuhya vitellina are recently demonstrated nematicidal activity against eggs of Heterodera filipjevi [158]. Figure 1E, Table 5). ...
Mushrooms are unexploited treasures of secondary metabolites. Analysis of the chemical constituents of these mushrooms would be necessary for the assessment of their pharmacological and biological activities. This study aimed at profiling of mycochemical constituents of five wild mushroom extracts thereby understanding their biological and pharmacological properties. Mushrooms were collected from Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests, Kenya. Specimens were identified by both morphological and molecular methods. Bioactive compounds were extracted using chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of Auricularia auricula-judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor were determined using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). From all extracts, a total of fifty-one (51) compounds were identified and grouped into carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehyde, fatty aldehyde, isoprenoid lipids, and steroid. Of the total compounds, Oleic acid (72.90%) from Trametes elegans was detected abundantly. Most of the compounds obtained from the chloroform extract of Trametes elegans and 70% ethanol extract of T. umkowaani are fatty acids. The identified compounds have revealed many biological and pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, anti-helminthic, larvicidal, vasodilator, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, antifertility anti-diuretic, antiasthma, antifouling, anti-dermatophytic, antispasmodic, anti-hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, immunostimulant, antiarthritic, and antihistaminic. These fatty acids are particularly playing important roles in the anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic anticancer, and anti-biofilm formation activities. The presence of these bioactive components suggests that the extracts of five wild mushrooms could be good sources of secondary metabolites for drug discovery.
... In the present study, Chaetoglobosin U was the most effective compound that showed the highest binding affinity against bovine ferritin and albumin. Various research studies have reported a wide array of biological properties for chaetoglobosins that include anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, phytotoxic, antitumor, anti-HIV, and nematicidal [44][45][46][47][48][49][50]. ...
Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is a predominant form of mastitis wherein major visible signs of disease are absent. The present study aimed to determine acute phase proteins (APPs) like ferritin, C-reactive protein (CRP), and microalbumin (Malb) in 135 composite milk and serum samples of healthy (n = 25) and SCM (n = 110) cows. As bovine mastitis is an inflammatory disease, the present study also aimed at finding novel anti-inflammatory compounds from natural sources by repurposing approach using computational studies. The findings of the present study revealed substantial elevation (p < 0.001) in milk SCC and an increase in ferritin, CRP, and Malb (p < 0.001) in milk and sera of the SCM group as compared to healthy animals. Receiver operating characteristics of milk SCC, milk, and serum APPs unraveled statistically substantial alteration (p < 0.001). Further, SCC was correlated with milk APPs ferritin (r = 0.26 **, p < 0.002), CRP (r = 0.19 *, p < 0.02), and Malb (r = 0.21 *, p < 0.01). Additionally, milk SCC was correlated with serum ferritin (r = 0.28 **, p < 0.001), CRP (r = 0.16, p > 0.05), and Malb (r = 0.16, p > 0.05). The findings of molecular docking revealed that Chaetoglobosin U was the most effective molecule that showed the highest binding affinity (kcal/mol) of −10.1 and −8.5 against ferritin and albumin. The present study concluded that the estimation of cow-side tests, SCC, and APPs in milk/serum is suitable to detect SCM and screening herd community. Furthermore, Chaetoglobosin U could be developed as a promising anti-inflammatory inhibitor; however, further studies are required to validate these findings.
... Notes: This species was originally introduced as Ijuhya antillana by Lechat & Courtecuisse (2010). Recently, it was transferred to Lasionectria based on the phylogenetic analysis of the combined act, LSU and rpb1 sequences (Ashrafi et al. 2017). Our phylogenetic analysis based on ITS, LSU, rpb2 and tef-1α confirmed the result of Ashrafi et al. (2017). ...
... Recently, it was transferred to Lasionectria based on the phylogenetic analysis of the combined act, LSU and rpb1 sequences (Ashrafi et al. 2017). Our phylogenetic analysis based on ITS, LSU, rpb2 and tef-1α confirmed the result of Ashrafi et al. (2017). Ascospores of Lasionectria antillana are striated lengthwise, which are in agreement with the generic characteristics of Lasionectria. ...
... It was subsequently transferred to Peristomialis and Ijuhya based on morphological characters (Samuels 1988, Rossman et al. 1999). In the present study, the ex-type culture of N. dentifera (CBS 574.76) falls in the Lasionectriopsis clade, which is distant from Nectria and Ijuhya (Ashrafi et al. 2017). Although the ascomatal wall of N. dentifera are of two regions, differing from Lasionectriopsis in which the ascomatal wall consists of a single region, it morphologically matches the features described for Lasionectriopsis in the yellow to orange, globose ascomata, finely spinulose ascospores and (sub-)globose conidia. ...
Acremonium is acknowledged as a highly ubiquitous genus including saprobic, parasitic, or endophytic fungi that inhabit a variety of environments. Species of this genus are extensively exploited in industrial, commercial, pharmaceutical, and biocontrol applications, and proved to be a rich source of novel and bioactive secondary metabolites. Acremonium has been recognised as a taxonomically difficult group of ascomycetes, due to the reduced and high plasticity of morphological characters, wide ecological distribution and substrate range. Recent advances in molecular phylogenies, revealed that Acremonium is highly polyphyletic and members of Acremonium s. lat. belong to at least three distinct orders of Sordariomycetes , of which numerous orders, families and genera with acremonium-like morphs remain undefined. To infer the phylogenetic relationships and establish a natural classification for acremonium-like taxa, systematic analyses were conducted based on a large number of cultures with a global distribution and varied substrates. A total of 633 cultures with acremonium-like morphology, including 261 ex-type cultures from 89 countries and a variety of substrates including soil, plants, fungi, humans, insects, air, and water were examined. An overview phylogenetic tree based on three loci (ITS, LSU, rpb2 ) was generated to delimit the orders and families. Separate trees based on a combined analysis of four loci (ITS, LSU, rpb2 , tef-1α ) were used to delimit species at generic and family levels. Combined with the morphological features, host associations and ecological analyses, acremonium-like species evaluated in the present study are currently assigned to 63 genera, and 14 families in Cephalothecales , Glomerellales and Hypocreales , mainly in the families Bionectriaceae , Plectosphaerellaceae and Sarocladiaceae and five new hypocrealean families, namely Chrysonectriaceae , Neoacremoniaceae , Nothoacremoniaceae , Pseudoniessliaceae and Valsonectriaceae . Among them, 17 new genera and 63 new combinations are proposed, with descriptions of 65 new species. Furthermore, one epitype and one neotype are designated to stabilise the taxonomy and use of older names. Results of this study demonstrated that most species of Acremonium s. lat. grouped in genera of Bionectriaceae , including the type A. alternatum . A phylogenetic backbone tree is provided for Bionectriaceae , in which 183 species are recognised and 39 well-supported genera are resolved, including 10 new genera. Additionally, rpb2 and tef-1α are proposed as potential DNA barcodes for the identification of taxa in Bionectriaceae .
... The details of nematode sampling are provided in Helaly et al. (2018a). Nematode cysts were extracted from soil and processed for fungal isolation as previously described (Ashrafi et al. 2017a). Briefly, cysts were surface disinfected using 0.5% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for 10 min. ...
... Genomic DNA was extracted from fungal mycelia of the pure cultures using a modified cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method (Ashrafi et al. 2017a;Saghai-Maroof et al. 1984). Five nuclear loci were amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR): the internal transcribed spacers including the 5.8S rDNA (ITS) using the primers ITS1F (Gardes and Bruns 1993) and ITS4 (White et al. 1990); the partial large subunit of the ribosomal RNA (LSU rRNA), using the primer pair LR0R (Rehner and Samuels 1994) and LR5 (Vilgalys and Hester 1990); the partial small subunit of the ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA), using the primers NS1 and NS4 (White et al. 1990); the partial RNA polymerase II second-largest subunit (rpb2) with the primer pairs rpb2F and rpb2R (Flores et al. 2017) or fRPB2-5F and fRPB2-7cR (Liu et al. 1999); and the partial translation-elongation factor 1-α (tef1) using the primers EF1-983f and EF1-2218r (Rehner 2001). ...
... Nematode cysts were photographed in water in a square cavity dish (40 × 40 × 16 mm). To illustrate fungal colonisation of nematode eggs in vitro, slide cultures were prepared and then photographed as described in Ashrafi et al. (2017a). Microscopic specimens were studied using Differential Interference Contrast optics. ...
In this study fungal strains were investigated, which had been isolated from eggs of the cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi, and roots of Microthlaspi perfoliatum (Brassicaceae). The morphology, the interaction with nematodes and plants and the phylogenetic relationships of these strains originating from a broad geographic range covering Western Europe to Asia Minor were studied. Phylogenetic analyses using five genomic loci including ITSrDNA, LSUrDNA, SSUrDNA, rpb2 and tef1-α were carried out. The strains were found to represent a distinct phylogenetic lineage
most closely related to Equiseticola and Ophiosphaerella, and Polydomus karssenii (Phaeosphaeriaceae, Pleosporales) is introduced here as a new species representing a monotypic genus. The pathogenicity tests against nematode eggs
fulfilled Koch’s postulates using in vitro nematode bioassays and showed that the fungus could parasitise its original nematode host H. filipjevi as well as the sugar beet cyst nematode H. schachtii, and colonise cysts and eggs of its hosts
by forming highly melanised moniliform hyphae. Light microscopic observations on fungus-root interactions in an axenic system revealed the capacity of the same fungal strain to colonise the roots of wheat and produce melanised hyphae and microsclerotia-like structure typical for dark septate endophytes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy further demonstrated that the fungus colonised the root cells by predominant intercellular growth of hyphae, and frequent formation of appressorium-like as well as penetration peg-like structures through internal cell walls surrounded by callosic papilla-like structures. Different strains of the new fungus produced a nearly identical set of secondary metabolites with various biological activities including nematicidal effects irrespective of their origin from plants or nematodes.
... Species of Ijuhya and Kallichroma are generally woodinhabiting saprobic fungi in marine and terrestrial environments, and involved in nutrient cycling (Dighton 1995;Arrigo 2005;Hyde and Lee 1995). Ijuhya vitellina, which produces chaetoglobosin with nematicidal and nematodeinhibiting activities, were studied for use against the cereal cyst nematode Heterodera filipjevi (Ashrafi et al. 2017). Saprobic on wood and herbaceous debris, occurring on fresh plant material, sometimes fungicolous or parasitic on nematodes, in terrestrial or marine habitats. ...
... Known distribution: Worldwide distribution. Belgium (Lechat and Fournier 2017a), China (Zhuang et al. 2007), Hong Kong (Fröhlich and Hyde 2000), French Guiana Lechat and Fournier 2017a), France, Turkey (Ashrafi et al. 2017;Fournier 2017a, 2019c), Germany (Lechat and Baral 2008), Spain (Lechat and Fournier 2019c), Chile, Brazil, Colombia, UK, France, India, Java, Indonesia, Panama, Venezuela (Rossman 1983;Samuels 1976b;Rossman et al. 1999), New Zealand (Whitton et al. 2012. ...
... Ijuhya species are mainly saprobic, growing on wood and herbaceous debris. Ijuhya species were also isolated from fresh plant material, ascomata of pyrenomycetes fungi (Lechat and Hairaud 2012;Lechat and Courtecuisse 2010;Rossman et al. 1999) and few are parasitic on nematodes such as Heterodera filipjevi, a cereal cyst nematode (Ashrafi et al. 2017). The genus is characterized by white to pale coloured ascomata, with an apical crown of fasciculate hairs and, ascomata lack KOH or lactic acid reactions. ...
This paper provides outlines for Bionectriaceae, Calcarisporiaceae, Hypocreaceae, Nectriaceae, Tilachlidiaceae, Ijuhyaceae, Stromatonectriaceae and Xanthonectriaceae with taxonomic treatments. We provide up-to-date DNA sequence-based phylogenies including combined gene analysis of ITS, LSU, rpb2, tef1 and tub2 for Hypocreales and accept 17 families. Three new families and 12 new species are introduced with descriptions and illustrations, while 13 new records and one new species combination are provided. Here we mainly detail the taxonomy of Bionectriaceae, Hypocreaceae, Nectriaceae and Tilachlidiaceae, Ijuhyaceae fam. nov., Stromatonectriaceae fam. nov. and Xanthonectriaceae fam. nov. are introduced in this study based on phenotypic and molecular analyses. For each family we provide a list of accepted genera, the taxonomic history, morphological descriptions, taxonomic placement based on DNA sequence data and illustrate the type genus. Representatives of each family are illustrated based on the type herbarium material or fresh specimens where available, or provide relevant references. Notes on ecological and economic importance of the families are also given.
... In addition, at 300 μg/mL, chaetoglobosin A had higher toxic effects and caused nematode mortality of I. vitellina destructively-parasitizing eggs inside cysts of nematode. The parasitism was also reproduced in in vitro studies [66]. ...
... Metabolites produced by Coronophora gregaria(51), Coronophora gregaria (52-55), unidentified freshwater fungus YMF 1.01029(56)(57)(58)(59)(60)(61)(62)(63)(64), and Talaromyces thermophilus(65)(66)(67)(68)(69)(70). ...
Microorganisms, virus, weeds, parasitic plants, insects, and nematodes are among the enemies that induce severe economic losses to agrarian production. Farmers have been forced to combat these enemies using different methods, including mechanical and agronomic strategies, since the beginning of agriculture. The development of agriculture, due to an increased request for food production, which is a consequence to the rapid and noteworthy growth of the world’s population, requires the use of more efficient methods to strongly elevate the yield production. Thus, in the last five-to-six decades, a massive and extensive use of chemicals has occurred in agriculture, resulting in heavy negative consequences, such as the increase in environmental pollution and risks for human and animal health. These problems increased with the repetition of treatments, which is due to resistance that natural enemies developed against this massive use of pesticides. There are new control strategies under investigation to develop products, namely biopesticides, with high efficacy and selectivity but based on natural products which are not toxic, and which are biodegradable in a short time. This review is focused on the microbial and plant metabolites with nematocidal activity with potential applications in suitable formulations in greenhouses and fields.
