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Life cycle stages of gold nanoparticles. The life cycle assessment models include processes from raw material extraction through nanoparticle synthesis. Impacts of reducing agents are included in Part I of the study, but excluded in Part II. (Purification steps have been ignored in all models).
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In recent years, “green” nanomaterial synthesis methods that rely upon natural alternatives to industrial chemicals have been increasingly studied. Although the feasibility of synthesizing nanoparticles (NPs) using phytochemicals, carbohydrates, and other biomolecules is well established, environmental burdens of these synthesis processes have not...
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... substantial part of the energy footprint in the AuNP synthesis is associated with the use of gold salt, and is pri- marily attributed to mining and refining processes for con- version of bulk gold from a mineral deposit into gold salt. The energy and environmental impacts of mining and refining are embedded into most metal-based nanotechnologies and therefore should be accounted for when referring to a nano- material or its application as green. Country-specific and process-specific differences in mining and refinery of gold also play a role in the overall environmental impact of gold- based nanotechnologies (Supplementary Fig. S1). Such insight can only be gained by doing a holistic, life cycle evaluation of purported green nanotechnologies. LCAs can also help in assessing the environmental impacts and cost- effectiveness of recycling nanomaterials and nanocomposites that contain precious ...
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... constructed cradle-to-gate AuNP synthesis models using SimaPro (8.0.1) for comparative LCA of three con- ventional AuNP synthesis methods and 13 green synthesis methods previously described in the peer-reviewed literature (Table 1). The functional unit used in each of these LCA models is 1 mg of AuNP synthesized by each method. These LCA models include processes from raw material extraction and processing through the synthesis of the NPs (as shown by the dotted box in Fig. 1). In this study, as discussed later, purification steps (centrifugation, dialysis, etc.) were ex- cluded. For the purpose of this study, we did not model re- cycling streams since it is not common practice to capture AuNP waste streams in laboratory-scale synthesis. Waste products from the syntheses were not included in these models since disposal practices widely vary by lab and ...
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... This process is usually rapid and straightforward, but it often involves the use of non-environmentally friendly reducing agents, such as borohydride. However, some research groups have attempted to replace conventional reducing agents (such as sodium borohydride, citrate, and hydrazine) with plant-based reducers amidst growing sustainability concerns (Pati et al. 2014). Surprisingly, this method has seen limited traction in anaerobic digestion research, as evidenced in Fig. 1b. ...
Anaerobic digestion technology, effective for sustainable waste management and renewable energy, but challenged by slow reaction rates and low biogas yields, could benefit from advancements in magnetic nanomaterials. This review explores the potential of magnetic nanomaterials, particularly magnetic biochar nanocomposites, to address these challenges by serving as electron conduits and providing essential iron. This review contributes a thorough overview of the application of magnetic nanoparticles loaded into biochar in anaerobic digestion and engages in a comprehensive discussion regarding the synthesis methods and characterization of various magnetic nanoparticles, elucidating their mechanisms of action in both the absence and presence of magnetic fields. Our review underscores the predominance of co-precipitation (53%) and commercially sourced nanoparticles (29%) as the main synthesis methods, with chemical reduction, pyrolysis, and green synthesis pathways less commonly utilized (8%, 5%, and 5%, respectively). Notably, pyrolysis is predominantly employed for synthesizing magnetic biochar nanocomposites, reflecting its prevalence in 100% of cases for this specific application. By offering a critical evaluation of the current state of knowledge and discussing the challenges and future directions for research in this field, this review can help researchers and practitioners better understand the potential of magnetic biochar nanocomposites for enhancing anaerobic digestion performance and ultimately advancing sustainable waste management and renewable energy production.
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... • The LCI of magnesium chloride hexahydrate was assumed to be produced from bischofite (MgCl 2 •6H 2 O) extracted from the Zechstein Sea region (Netherlands). • The LCI of citric acid trisodium salt was modelled based on the LCI for trisodium citrate compiled by Pati, P. et al. (Pati et al., 2014). • The LCI of tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris-HCl) was developed based on the chemical process described in (Jean Bourguignon et al., 1980) but without considering the energy consumption, as suggested by Bello et al. (2021) for a similar Tris-HCl simulation. ...
... A mass-based functional unit of 1 g of g-C 3 N 4 nanosheets was chosen for this assessment. While this functional unit does not capture performance differences that result from varying syntheses, mass-based functional units have been used in other studies as a useful baseline for comparative novel material analyses (Deorsola et al., 2012;Grubb & Bakshi, 2011;Healy et al., 2008;Joshi, 2008;LeCorre et al., 2013;Li et al., 2013;Middlemas et al., 2015;Pati et al., 2014). Further, the fundamental nature of a mass-based functional unit allows for future adaptation (via conversion factors) ...
... to any g-C 3 N 4 application in which the required material mass is known (Healy et al., 2008;Pati et al., 2014). While functional units are intended to include a performance metric for a certain application (International Organisation for Standardization (ISO), 2006), our intent is for the results presented herein to be broadly relevant to all uses of g-C 3 N 4 . ...
Graphitic carbon nitride (g‐C3N4) has gained great interest as a visible‐light‐activated photocatalyst. As an emerging nanomaterial for environmental applications, its competitive performance and environmentally responsible synthesis are critical to its success. A powerful tool for informing material development with reduced environmental impacts is life cycle assessment (LCA). In this study, LCA is used to evaluate the environmental impacts of g‐C3N4 nanosheet produced via eight existing synthesis routes. The results reveal electricity as the main contributor to the cumulative impacts of all eight g‐C3N4 syntheses. There are opportunities to reduce energy demand, and consequently the synthesis impacts, by revising synthesis procedures (i.e., removing or reducing time of use of a piece of equipment), optimizing the calcination step (i.e., faster heating rate, lower heating time, lower temperature), and moving to cleaner electricity sources. Further, benchmarking the environmental impacts of g‐C3N4 nanosheets to a well‐established metal‐based photocatalyst, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano‐TiO2), reveals mixed comparative results. The synthesis method substantially influences the comparative impacts. Considering use‐phase benefits of activating g‐C3N4 with visible wavelength light emitting diodes compared to ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths for nano‐TiO2 results in a 52% energy demand reduction (in kWh). Performance of g‐C3N4 compared to a high‐energy disinfection approach (i.e., conventional UV) reveals an inability to meet drinking water disinfection standards for viral load reduction (4‐log reduction) with any mass of g‐C3N4, given its high embodied resource footprint. This work establishes a foundation to inform and direct g‐C3N4 nanosheets toward improved sustainable development.
... The use of life cycle assessmentFollowing a system thinking approach Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) are designed to evaluate and assess the potential environmental, economic, and societal impacts related to the sourcing of reagents, processing, distribution, use, and disposal of materials [17][18][19]. By listing, mapping, and evaluating the safety and suitability of the material and energy inputs, products, and byproducts, it is possible to compare distinctive synthetic methods or different possible products by determining relevant metrics focusing on process intensity (similar to atom economy), toxicity, and cost [20][21][22][23]. ...
... While LCA methods are specific and tailored to a given system, examining analyses of metal chalcogenides and related green nanoparticle systems through metrics-based assessments can inform the design of transition metal chalcogenide nanoparticles and help mitigate unwanted impacts [22,25,26]. Researchers may look to blend their own experimental data with literature data to support claims of innovation or sustainability with quantitative analyses using a life cycle approach towards making and using nanoparticulate matter [27][28][29]. ...
... To illustrate the utility of life cycle assessments, a simplified LCA was performed by aggregating and reframing data from several different routes to distinctive copper sulfide nanosystems [22,25]. Five different synthetic protocols were selected from the literature and with open-access resources these data are used to calculate metrics related to economic, societal, and environmental impacts associated to the chemicals and relative amounts in the protocols [131][132][133][134][135]. ...
Transition metal chalcogenides (TMC) is a broad class of materials comprising binary, ternary, quaternary, and multinary oxides, sulfides, selenides, and tellurides. These materials have application in different areas such as solar cells, photocatalysis, sensors, photoinduced therapy, and fluorescent labeling. Due to the technological importance of this class of material, it is necessary to find synthetic methods to produce them through procedures aligned with the Green Chemistry. In this sense, this chapter presents opportunities to make the solution chemistry synthesis of TMC greener. In addition to synthesis, the chapter presents different techniques of experimental planning and analysis, such as design of experiments, life cycle assessment, and machine learning. Then, it explains how Green Chemistry can benefit from each one of these techniques, and how they are related to the Green Chemistry Principles. Focus is placed on binary chalcogenides (sulfides, selenides, and tellurides), and the quaternary sulfide Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), due to its application in many fields like solar energy, photocatalysis, and water splitting. The Green Chemistry synthesis, characterization, and application of these materials may represent sustainable and effective ways to save energy and resources without compromising the quality of the produced material.
... The results showed that a significant part of the energy footprint of Au NPs synthesis was according to the energy embodied in Au. Consequently, these synthesis methods exhibited significant environmental impacts that depend on reaction time and efficiency (Pati et al., 2014); LCA can analyze various environmental impacts of NP synthesis processes and help to select processes with reduced life cycle impacts. ...
Today, researchers have focused on the application of environmentally-benign and sustainable micro- and nanosystems for drug delivery and cancer therapy. Compared to conventional chemotherapeutics, advanced micro- and nanosystems designed by applying abundant, natural, and renewable feedstocks have shown biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity advantages. However, important aspects of toxicological assessments, clinical translational studies, and suitable functionalization/modification still need to be addressed. Herein, the benefits and challenges of green nanomedicine in cancer nanotherapy and targeted drug delivery are cogitated using nanomaterials designed by exploiting natural and renewable resources. The application of nanomaterials accessed from renewable natural resources, comprising metallic nanomaterials, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks, natural-derived nanomaterials, etc. For targeted anticancer drug delivery and cancer nanotherapy are deliberated, with emphasis on important limitations/challenges and future perspectives.
... Due to the structural complexity of physical properties and chemical compositions of nanoparticles, process intermediate interactions of nanoparticles may vary throughout the life cycle, especially at the disposal stage, making them challenging to repurpose into something new, since nanomaterials (NM) properties can be unpredictable (Chappell et al., 2017;Bartolozzi et al., 2019;Salieri et al., 2018). Nanoparticle disposal management is also required for the safeguarding of the environment (Pati et al., 2014). Bartolozzi et al. (2019) specified that during the study of life cycle analysis, use of the final product at end-of-life stages should be included. ...
... However, some reducing agents, such as sodium borohydride, NaBH 4 is known to have negative impact on both the environment and human body. For example, 1 mg of sodium borohydride has a cumulative energy demand of 4.63 Â 10 -4 MJ and freshwater ecotoxicity of 2.49 Â 10 -9 kg [22], hence further purification is needed to remove the excess reducing agent. Additionally, it is difficult to obtain stable AgNCs via the conventional chemical reduction process, since the formed AgNCs tend to agglomerate into larger clusters due to the reduced surface energy [19]. ...
A robust method to prepare silver nanoclusters (AgNCs) inside a methacrylic acid-ethyl acrylate (MAA-EA) nanogel is proposed, where AgNCs were produced inside the nanogel scaffold via UV-photoreduction. The impact of UV irradiation time on the formation of AgNCs and their application in biolabeling and antimicrobial properties were examined. The AgNCs formation is described by two stages; (1) Agn (n=2-8) nanoclusters formation between 0-25 min, and (2) larger silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) formed via aggregation inside the nanogel. The antimicrobial performance depended on the size and concentration of silver ions (Ag⁺). A low highest maximum inhibitory concentration (HMIC) of 1.1 ppm was observed for antimicrobial test with yeast, and a MIC of 11 and 22 ppm was recorded for Escherichia. coli and Staphylococcus aureus respectively. Combining with the green illumination property of AgNCs (emitted at 525 nm) with dead yeast, it could be used for biolabeling. By tuning the size through photoirradiation, the nanogel templated AgNCs is a promising candidate for antimicrobial and biolabeling applications.
... They explored environmental impact greatly rely on reaction conditions (reducing agents, energy, yields, time, etc.) in green gold nanomaterials (AuNP). LCA of AuNP processes also assisted and directed the selection method for data collections and helpful research according to environmentally sustainable paths (Pati et al., 2014). In Fig. 17.3, they have illustrated the LCA of gold nanomaterials through both conventional and green synthesis. ...
For the last few years, the search for potentially sustainable green nanomaterials has been a challenge for the medicinal, cosmetics, electronics, and environmental industries. Green nanomaterials are a boon for worldwide environmental sustainability owing to their cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable nature. Most of the materials and synthetic procedures used for nonrenewable resources generate undesirable, harmful, and dangerous wastes. Therefore, the development of green nanomaterials using a suitable combination of nanomaterials and general green chemistry practices has been encouraged. Nanomaterials are predominantly exceptionally small, with a size range in nm and a high surface to volume ratio. These potential materials are attractive because of their distinctive properties, such as their structural, morphological, optical, and electronic characteristics. The design of these nanomaterials can be achieved via natural resources, biological processes, and nonhazardous solvents/solvent-free and energy-efficient techniques that reduce toxic wastes during large-scale production. Furthermore, outcome of large production of nanomaterials can be highlight in terms of minimize environmental impact using green chemistry principles. Metal nanomaterials mostly have a reducing nature and are costly, tremendously reactive, and lethal to the surroundings. So, instead of metal nanomaterials, green nanoparticles embedded natural resources can be used, as they are ecologically reactive and cheaper, with well-organized, interesting structural morphologies and eco-friendly natures. Energy consumption and raw materials (chemical/biological) are notable in green nanomaterial synthesis and lead to environmental impact during the production, utilization, and release throughout the whole life cycle. In view of constant advancements in the green nanomaterials field, this chapter deals with novel green nanomaterials, life cycle analysis, environmental impact, ongoing challenges, and future prospects.
... This factor contributes to a significant level of uncertainty around potential releases and consequences of NMs disposal management. Some studies that included the recovery or recycling stage considerably lowered the overall environmental impacts of the examined NMs, making them more enticing than conventional materials [13,66]. However, [79] stated that the final use and the end-of-life stages should also be included in the LCA study, as well as extending the system boundaries from cradle-to-grave, considering the final disposal of the produced NMs consist of combustion of the bio-organic product, which may have contributed to the potential environmental impacts. ...
This paper provides a comprehensive review of 71 previous studies on the life cycle assessment (LCA) of nanomaterials (NMs) from 2001 to 2020 (19 years). Although various studies have been carried out to assess the efficiency and potential of wastes for nanotechnology, little attention has been paid to conducting a comprehensive analysis related to the environmental performance and hotspot of NMs, based on LCA methodology. Therefore, this paper highlights and discusses LCA methodology's basis (goal and scope definition, system boundary, life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment, and interpretation) to insights into current practices, limitations, progress , and challenges of LCA application NMs. We found that there is still a lack of comprehensive LCA study on the environmental impacts of NMs until end-of-life stages, thereby potentially supporting misleading conclusions, in most of the previous studies reviewed. For a comprehensive evaluation of LCA of NMs, we recommend that future studies should: (1) report more detailed and transparent LCI data within NMs LCA studies; (2) consider the environmental impacts and potential risks of NMs within their whole life cycle; (3) adopt a transparent and prudent characterization model; and (4) include toxicity, uncertainty, and sensitivity assessments to analyze the exposure pathways of NMs further. Future recommendations towards improvement and harmonization of methodological for future research directions were discussed and provided. This study's findings redound to future research in the field of LCA NMs specifically, considering that the release of NMs into the environment is yet to be explored due to limited understanding of the mechanisms and pathways involved.
... In particular, for CNTs, the higher the quality of the nanoparticles (CNT length, structural regularity, purity, etc.), the lower the yield (Upadhyayula et al., 2012). Since LCA accounts for all energy and materials used to produce reagents, including those that are used in excess (Pati et al., 2014), data for energy consumption and emissions can vary by orders of magnitude even for the same type of nanoparticles. ...
Adding nanoparticles to a host polymer can lead to performance improvements that can be twice as beneficial to the environment: first, sustainable nanocomposites based on bioplastics or recycled plastics could replace ubiquitous petroleum-based polymers; second, substantial plastic saving could be achieved by profiting from the superior specific properties of the nanocomposites. Nevertheless, the inherent environmental burden of nanoparticles can compromise the expected benefits. Here we address the controversial issue of the environmental sustainability of “green” polymer nanocomposites based on bioplastics and recycled plastics. A critical review of life-cycle assessment studies regarding nanocomposites and their individual constituents is presented. Nanoparticles have a remarkable environmental impact despite their typically low content. Except for organo-clays and graphene, the production of common nanofillers (nanocellulose, titanium dioxide, silver and, above all, carbon nanotubes) emits relevant amounts of greenhouse gases and requires high energy, nullifying the advantages of using green polymer matrices. Reaching high performance becomes hence crucial to make polymer nanocomposites truly sustainable through material saving. For this purpose, increasing the content of nanoparticles or functionalizing them to enhance their dispersion in the host polymer can unexpectedly entail environmental benefits.
