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Life and Death of Clitocybe nebularis Fruit Bodies in a Suburban Garden in Stockport, Autumn 2006. Observations began on 21 October and Continued for 29 days to 19 November. Troops of Fruit Bodies of Coprinus micaceus Emerged, Matured and Decayed $26 October and November 1 (the Latter are Illustrated). Some Disturbance and Grazing (Squirrels?) was Evident on 10 November, and Collapsed Fruit Bodies by 18 November.
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Sexual reproduction is important because it generates genetic variation, offers an escape from DNA parasites and provides a means to repair DNA damage. Many fungi exhibit particular patterns of sexual fruit body morphogenesis but the characteristics differ between species. However, it is possible to generalise that within developing fruit body tiss...
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Context 1
... of a wild troop of Clitocybe nebularis in a garden in Stockport, Cheshire, began on 21 October 2006, at which time the fruit bodies were young, but close to maturity (5 cm diameter), and continued for 29 days (Figure 6). October and November 1 (the Latter are Illustrated). Some Disturbance and Grazing (Squirrels?) was Evident on 10 November, and Collapsed Fruit Bodies by 18 ...
Context 2
... of a wild troop of Clitocybe nebularis in a garden in Stockport, Cheshire, began on 21 October 2006, at which time the fruit bodies were young, but close to maturity (5 cm diameter), and continued for 29 days (Figure 6). October and November 1 (the Latter are Illustrated). ...
Context 3
... of a wild troop of Clitocybe nebularis in a garden in Stockport, Cheshire, began on 21 October 2006, at which time the fruit bodies were young, but close to maturity (5 cm diameter), and continued for 29 days (Figure 6). October and November 1 (the Latter are Illustrated). Some Disturbance and Grazing (Squirrels?) was Evident on 10 November, and Collapsed Fruit Bodies by 18 ...
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Citations
... The climatic and edaphic conditions of the Western Ghats region of Kerala favor the occurrence of diverse mushroom species with seasonal variations. Frequent rainfall, high humidity, optimum temperature, and acidic soil pH are crucial factors that support mycelial development and fruiting body production [40]. The availability of dense forest areas in the entire KFRI region also helps maintain the diversity of wood-rotting fungi (Basidiomycota). ...
... Mineral content plays a key role in the development of mushroom fruiting bodies [48]. Singh et al. documented that the elemental analysis of G. lucidum shows that the Ca, Na, Zn, and P are significantly similar to our present finding, but the K (23.9 ± 0.66 mg kg −1 ) and Fe (4.83 ± 0.33 mg kg −1 ) are much lower than in G. lucidum [40] and the amount of Mn (90.73 ± 1.22 mg kg −1 ) present is higher in G. applanatum. This is comparable to other previously studied results that also recommended Mn as the most abundant mineral among samples of different species. ...
The present study focused on the mushroom Ganoderma, which has been used in Eastern countries for centuries as a food and medicinal source. Specifically, the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma applanatum from the Kerala Forest Research Institute in Thirussur, Kerala, India, were analyzed for their nutritional and medicinal properties. The methanolic extracts of G. applanatum were used to examine secondary metabolites and proximate profiles, revealing the presence of various phytochemicals such as terpenoids, phenolics, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins. Further analysis revealed the presence of significant amounts of calcium, sodium, phosphorus, and manganese. The compounds were characterized using chromatographic analysis, FTIR, and GC-MS, which revealed potential therapeutic compounds with C-H and C-O bonds in the amide group, β-glycosides, and C-C/C-O vibrations of phenolic substances. Mushroom extract at a concentration of 100 µg mL−1 exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against various pathogens. This study suggests that G. applanatum has a rich biochemical composition and pharmacological potential, making it a promising candidate for drug development and traditional medicine, and contributes valuable insights into its diverse therapeutic applications.
... Spring, on the other hand, exhibited lower sporocarp values. This dissimilarity is expected because most of the groups studied have a preference to fructify during autumn when the meteorological conditions are favorable for sporocarp fructification [46]. In fact, specifically in Mediterranean oak woods, Salerni et al. [47] reported a maximum number of fruiting species in autumn since temperatures are mild and rains are abundant. ...
Deadwood is involved in several important ecological roles, being the fundamental habitat of wood-decay fungi. At the same time, this polyphyletic group of fungi is the principal agent of wood decomposition, regulating the carbon cycle and the food resource for many other organisms. It is known that the diversity and community composition of wood-decay fungi are related to the tree species, decay stage and size of the woody debris in which they are living. Nevertheless, there is a lack of information on Mediterranean Quercus cerris L. forests. In response, we explored how wood-decay fungi colonize different woody types and how the productivity, richness and community composition of these fungi is influenced by the decay stage and size of the deadwood. Our results indicate that the studied groups, i.e., Ascomycetes, Corticioids, Polyporoids and Heterobasidiomycetes responded differently to the woody debris classes. Moreover, we note the high importance of smaller and soft-decayed woody debris for community composition and richness, hosting a great number of species, in addition to the positive effect of the heterogeneity of the woody debris size for wood-decay fungi productivity.
... This concurs with our findings that properties of the wood, and decay type, are the bases for differences in the substrate affinity of fungi. We again suggest that experiments on the growth of fungi in different wood types, both alone and competing with others, and environmental cues for fruiting (Moore et al., 2008), are needed to elucidate this further. Substrate affinity of fungal species may also vary depending on environment (Boddy et al., 2014), and our results demonstrated that mean annual temperature was more influential than annual precipitation in structuring communities. ...
Wood decomposing fungi differ in their substrate affinities, but to what extent factors like wood properties influence host specialization, compared to climate, is largely unknown. In this study, we analysed British field observations of 61 common wood decay species associated with 41 tree and shrub genera. While white rot fungi ranged from low-to high-substrate affinity, brown rot fungi were exclusively mid-to high-affinity. White rot fungi associated with dead fallen wood demonstrated the least substrate affinity. The composition of wood decomposer fungi was mostly structured by substrate properties, sorted between angiosperms and conifers. Any relationships with temporal and regional climate variability were of far less significance, but did predict community-based and substrate-usage host shifts, especially for fungi on fallen deadwood. Our results demonstrate that substrate shifts by wood-decay fungi will depend primarily upon their degree of affinity to, and the distribution of, related woody genera, followed less at regional levels by climate impacts.
... At the general level, the development of F. fomentarius fruiting bodies is a multistep process of differentiation and multicellular growth. Changes initiate at the genomic level, which ultimately alters hyphal behavior and physiology in response to external stimuli, such as light, temperature, gravity, humidity, and/or molecular signals (24). The large fruiting bodies produced by F. fomentarius may reach a diameter of up to 50 cm and grow while the fungus decomposes the tree in a process that may span over 30 years. ...
High strength, hardness, and fracture toughness are mechanical properties that are not commonly associated with the fleshy body of a fungus. Here, we show with detailed structural, chemical, and mechanical characterization that Fomes fomentarius is an exception, and its architectural design is a source of inspiration for an emerging class of ultralightweight high-performance materials. Our findings reveal that F. fomentarius is a functionally graded material with three distinct layers that undergo multiscale hierarchical self-assembly. Mycelium is the primary component in all layers. However, in each layer, mycelium exhibits a very distinct microstructure with unique preferential orientation, aspect ratio, density, and branch length. We also show that an extracellular matrix acts as a reinforcing adhesive that differs in each layer in terms of quantity, polymeric content, and interconnectivity. These findings demonstrate how the synergistic interplay of the aforementioned features results in distinct mechanical properties for each layer.
... Mushrooms benefit from an adaptable and flexible metabolism and their versatile biochemical capabilities are used in a variety of ways during morphogenesis [10]. Through its enzymatic apparatus, the fungus degrades the different compounds present in the substrate to obtain the elements required for its development [11]. ...
... Mushrooms benefit from an adaptable and flexible metabolism and their versatile biochemical capabilities are used in a variety of ways during morphogenesis [10]. Through its enzymatic apparatus, the fungus degrades the different compounds present in the substrate to obtain the elements required for its development [11]. ...
Organic agricultural waste is successfully used in the production of mushrooms as it promotes the reuse of resources and increases food production. For the formulation of the substrate for Pleurotus spp. production, the availability of nutrients must be rigorously analyzed to assess whether supplementation is necessary. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the agronomic behavior of Pleurotus ostreatus var. Florida when grown on different straws and to analyze nutrient dynamics at the beginning and end of cultivation. Straws of rice, wheat and brachiaria were used as substrates without any supplementation. The yields, biological efficiency, number and weights of mushrooms were evaluated in two crop cycles. Rice straw provided a higher yield, better biological efficiency and a greater number of mushrooms in both cultures. Wheat straw showed intermediate results for the same variables. None of the substrates showed a significant difference for mushroom weight. In the first crop, only Mg and the number of mushrooms exhibited a positive correlation; in the second crop, only K and the yield of the 1st flush showed a positive correlation. With this study, it was possible to demonstrate that agricultural residues with higher levels of K increase P. ostreatus yield, and that Mg management affects the number of mushrooms for harvesting. The results will be a useful guide for efficient and sustainable mineral supplementation of the substrate.
... Gravi-morphoses are species-specific and evolve depending on the stage of moss development and environmental factors; they represent a widespread adaptive form of growth in the life strategy of bryophytes [8,21,22]. In other systems, the dorsoventral shape of tree shoot development, gravi-dependent wood formation, the location of lateral buds in orchids and fungal fruiting bodies are well-known examples of adaptations in response to gravity [23][24][25]. Gravi-sensitive chloronemata of the species Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid, Physcomitrella patens (Hedw.) ...
Gravi-morphoses affect the variability of plants and are the morphogenetic adaptation to different environmental conditions. Gravity-dependent phenotypic plasticity of gametophytes as well as gravi-sensitivity of moss protonemata in microgravity and simulated microgravity conditions are discussed. The moss protonema, a filamentous multicellular system, representing a juvenile stage of moss development, develops as a result of the elongation and division of the apical cell. This apical cell of the protonema is a unique object for research on moss gravi-sensitivity, as graviperception and gravitropic growth occur within the same single cell. Attention is focused on the influence of gravity on bryophyte ontogenesis, including the gravitropic reactivity of moss protonemata, gravi-sensitivity at the stage of leafy shoot development and sporogonium formation, gravity-influenced morphogenesis of apical cell budding, and gravity-dependent spiral growth patterns. The role of gravireceptors in the growth processes of mosses at the cellular level under microgravity conditions are being discussed, as well as the involvement of auxin transport, Ca2+-induced gravitropism and the cytoskeleton in gravitropic reactions.
... Norstedt et al., 2001;Richard et al., 2004). In these communities as in temperate (Smith et al., 2002;Moore et al., 2008) and boreal (Timling et al., 2014) ones, a wide range of fungal life-forms co-occur, based on their morpho-anatomical (gastroid vs. agaricoid species), biological (e.g. location relative to soil surface, epi-vs. ...
... These authors evidenced a 30 d fruiting shift of early-fruiting species with no shift for late-fruiting species. Interestingly, and even if averaged values have to be considered with caution because of the above-mentioned methodological biases, we observed a fruiting shift at the secular scale of similar amplitude to previous studies investigating the same question at decennial scales (Gange et al., 2007;Kauserud et al., 2008;Moore et al., 2008). This finding suggests that either most phenological shifts are recent and similar in duration across Europe, or changes in the Mediterranean area during recent decades were less pronounced than in temperate regions. ...
Long-term responses in the phenology of Mediterranean macrofungi to climatic changes are poorly documented. Here, we address this issue by comparing the fruiting patterns of 159 fungal species in Southern France between the first half of the 19th century and the first decade of the 21st century. We used a trait-based approach to assess the influence of phenology and morphology of fungal fruit bodies and their site ecology and biogeography on the response to climate change. We show that early autumnal fruiters, epigeous species and species with affinities for cold climates now start to fruit on average 16.4, 17.3 and 17.3 d later compared to their emergence dates in the 19th century, while late fruiters, hypogeous species and Mediterranean-restricted species did not change their fruiting date. Among ecological guilds, saproxylic species and pine-associated mutualists delayed their autumnal emergence by 32.5 and 19.2 d, likely in response to a delayed rewetting of litter and woody debris after extended summer drought. Our results suggest that long-term climate warming in the Mediterranean was accompanied by contrasting changes in the emergence of fungal fruit bodies according to ecological guilds, sporocarp life-forms and forest types.
... The organization of hyphae significantly changes while creating fruiting bodies. Normally, the filaments show positive autotropism by growing in an upwards direction; however while forming a fruiting body structure, they start to grow inwards and show negative autotropism [18]. This is due to hyphae forming a three-dimensional compound complex by interlocking with other hyphae structures, instead of simply forming an unconstrained mesh. ...
... This is due to hyphae forming a three-dimensional compound complex by interlocking with other hyphae structures, instead of simply forming an unconstrained mesh. The initial development of the fruiting body begins with a hyphal knot, which can be triggered by a disturbance such as an injury, edge encounter or changes in nutrient levels, temperature, or light exposure [18]. In the formation of Basidiomycota fungi, hyphae form knots by reducing their level of chitin and the knots become mushrooms by expansion and inflation of pre-existing hyphae. ...
... Light duration and temperature are kept as constant values since we found across our interaction with fungi that they are more effective in initiating the mushroom formation rather than affecting mushroom morphology. High humidity environments provide favorable conditions for mushrooms to thrive in and bear fruit [18]. Different sources state that using 90-95% humidity or using 80-85% humidified culture room as well as spraying their fungi three times a day helps to achieve the optimal mushroom yield [20,22]. Stalk thickness tends to decrease with the decrease in the level of humidity, since there is not enough water for mushroom development [18,23]. ...
Designing with biological materials as a burgeoning approach in the architecture field requires the development of new design strategies and fabrication methods. In this paper, we question if designers can use a parametric design approach while working with living materials. The research uses fungi as a biomaterial probe to experiment with the parametric behavior of living systems. Running design experiments using fungi helps to understand the extent to which biological systems can be considered parametric and, if so, what kind of parametric systems they are. Answering these questions provides a method to work with complex biological systems and may lead to new approaches of fabricating materials by tuning the environmental parameters of biological growth.
... Fruiting body is a highly nutritious multicellular structure containing spores of fungi and other microbes (Maurice et al., 2021). Its morphology, sporulation period, and longevity vary in different species (Moore et al., 2008). Heterobasidion species tend to be active when the temperature is above 5 • C, and the spore deposition rate for each square meter can be over 1,000 basidiospores per hour (Gonthier et al., 2005;Müller et al., 2014). ...
... Besides, being different from dead wood, the appearance of fruiting body may already indicate a specific environment background. For example, moisture and temperature were recorded to have a significant impact on the fungus sporulation (Moore et al., 2008). The microbes inhabiting the fruiting body could have a smaller range compared with those in dead wood. ...
The microbiome of Heterobasidion -induced wood decay of living trees has been previously studied; however, less is known about the bacteria biota of its perennial fruiting body and the adhering wood tissue. In this study, we investigated the bacteria biota of the Heterobasidion fruiting body and its adhering deadwood. Out of 7,462 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), about 5,918 OTUs were obtained from the fruiting body and 5,469 OTUs were obtained from the associated dead wood. Interestingly, an average of 52.6% of bacteria biota in the fruiting body was shared with the associated dead wood. The overall and unique OTUs had trends of decreasing from decay classes 1 to 3 but increasing in decay class 4. The fruiting body had the highest overall and unique OTUs number in the fourth decay class, whereas wood had the highest OTU in decay class 1. Sphingomonas spp. was significantly higher in the fruiting body, and phylum Firmicutes was more dominant in wood tissue. The FAPROTAX functional structure analysis revealed nutrition, energy, degradation, and plant-pathogen-related functions of the communities. Our results also showed that bacteria communities in both substrates experienced a process of a new community reconstruction through the various decay stages. The process was not synchronic in the two substrates, but the community structures and functions were well-differentiated in the final decay class. The bacteria community was highly dynamic; the microbiota activeness, community stability, and functions changed with the decay process. The third decay class was an important turning point for community restructuring. Host properties, environmental factors, and microbial interactions jointly influenced the final community structure. Bacteria community in the fruiting body attached to the living standing tree was suppressed compared with those associated with dead wood. Bacteria appear to spread from wood tissue of the standing living tree to the fruiting body, but after the tree is killed, bacteria moved from fruiting body to wood. It is most likely that some of the resident endophytic bacteria within the fruiting body are either parasitic, depending on it for their nutrition, or are mutualistic symbionts.
