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Level of consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) expressed as percent energy provided by UPF intake with respect to total energy intake (TEI) by considering age.
Source publication
A debate is ongoing on the significance and appropriateness of the NOVA classification as a tool for categorizing foods based on their degree of processing. As such, the role of ultra-processed food (UPF) on human health is still not completely understood. With this review, we aimed to investigate the actual level of consumption of UPF across count...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... nd (see Table 3 Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or standard error of the mean (SEM) *; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index; W, women; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; M, men; mo., months; nd, not determined or reported; UPF, ultra-processed food and drink products; TEI, total energy intake. ...Context 2
... age, studies generally reported large variations amongst the age groups. However, UPF intake generally decreased with increasing age, with the highest levels of UPF intake observed in children and adolescents, and the lowest in older subjects [51,54,87,104,108,110,112,118] (Table 3). Only five studies also stratified results based on body mass index (BMI) of the participants, generally finding a slight, but higher, UPF intake in subjects with the highest BMI (e.g., greater than 30 kg/m 2 ) [58,87,89,95] (Table 4) [58]. ...Context 3
... years = 20.0% ≥50 years = 12.2% 2-9 years = 19.3 ± 0.3% * of TEI 10-19 years = 19.3 ± 0.3% * of TEI 20-34 years = 15.4 ± 0.3% * of TEI 35-49 years = 12.2 ± 0.3% * of TEI ≥50 years = 11.4 ± 0.4% * of TEI Significant differences (p < 0.001) between age groups Vedovato et al., (2020) [21] n = 1175 children (3 and 7 years) 4 years = 27.3 ± 11.1% of TEI 7 years = 29.3 ± 10.4% of TEI Interclass correlation coefficient = 0.32 Machado et al., (2019 and2020b) [102,103] n = 822 (2-5 years) n = 889 (6-11 years) n = 1204 (12-19 years) n = 7135 (20-64 years) n = 2103 (>65 years) 2-5 years = 47.3% of TEI 6-11 years = 53.1% of TEI 12-19 years = 54.3% of TEI 20-64 years = 39.4% of TEI >65 years = 36.3% of TEI SD or SE: nd Statistic: nd Table 3. Cont. ...Similar publications
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Background
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Citations
... The ED-LF dietary pattern was positively loaded on foods with high energy density, rich in sugars and fats, and with low nutrient content, such as sugar-sweetened beverages, fast foods, and sauces that are mostly ultra-processed products. The consumption of these items has increased in the last decades and is associated with weight gain in adults [34][35][36][37][38], and they are usually eaten to replace more complex meals at lunch or dinner [39]. ...
Hybrid methods are a suitable option to extract dietary patterns associated with health outcomes. This study aimed to identify dietary patterns of Brazilian adults (20-59 years old; n=28,153) related to dietary components associated with the risk of obesity. Data from the 2017-2018 Brazilian National Dietary Survey were analyzed. Food consumption was obtained through 24-hour recall. Dietary patterns were extracted using partial least squares regression. The selected response variables were energy density (ED), percentage of total fat (%TF), and fiber density (FD). In addition, 32 food groups were established as predictor variables. The first dietary pattern, named as energy-dense and low-fiber (ED-LF), included with positive factor loadings: solid fats, breads, added-sugar beverages, fast foods, sauces, pasta, and cheeses, and with negative factor loadings: rice, beans, vegetables, water, and fruits. Higher adherence to the ED-LF dietary pattern was observed for individuals >40 years old, from urban areas, in the highest income level, who were not on a diet, reporting away-from-home food consumption, and having ≥1 snack/day. Eating patterns with similar characteristics are often associated with an increased risk of obesity. The results are consistent with recommendations to increase the consumption of fresh foods and to reduce ultra-processed products.
... Food and Agriculture Organization has proposed a NOVA food classification system that divides foods into four groups based on the type, extent, and purpose of industrial processing: unprocessed or minimally processed foods (UMPFs), processed culinary ingredients (PCIs), processed foods (PFs) and ultra-processed foods (UPFs) (Monteiro et al., 2019). One of the greatest concern today is the increasing consumption of UPFs, since it is suggested that this leads to an unbalanced diet (Monteiro et al., 2019;Elizabeth et al., 2020;Marino et al., 2021). The group of UPFs includes formulations of ingredients, mostly industrially produced, in the form of ready-to-eat products, prepared and ready-to-heat products. ...
... In addition, it includes sport foods, supplements and products to which nutrients and phytochemicals have been added for fortification (Monteiro et al., 2019). Considering the fact that UPFs are more available and their consumption is possible at any time and regardless of the place (Monteiro et al., 2013;Monteiro et al., 2019), they are attractive for the consumption by different population groups in the life span (Marino et al., 2021;Lauria et al., 2021;de Miranda et al., 2021a;Mertens et al., 2022). In several European countries, between 14% and 44% of adults' daily energy intake comes from UPFs, and in countries where adults consume a higher proportion of energy from UPFs, the burden of overweight and obesity is higher (Mertens et al., 2022). ...
... However, there is also a criticism of this system of food classification and the theory that increased consumption of UPFs is the cause of the occurrence of diseases. It is emphasized that it is necessary to evaluate the impact of consumption of UPFs on diseases in terms of the overall dietary pattern (Marino et al., 2021). Athletes, among others, could be a population group that reaches for ultra-processed foods more often. ...
To enhance recovery, athletes often consume ready-to-eat foods, specialized sports foods and/or supplements that belong to the group of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which may affect their health. The aim of this study was to estimate consumption of UPFs in basketball players and to determine whether there is a difference in anthropometric characteristics, neuromuscular and cardiovascular fitness and microbiota composition between players in relation to the proportion of daily energy from processed foods. The study involved 17 elite male basketball players (>18 years) from Croatia during the competitive season. After cluster analysis of daily energy contribution from NOVA food groups, 35% of players were clustered into higher UPFs consumption group. No differences in anthropometric characteristics, neuromuscular and cardiovascular fitness were observed between players who consumed more UPFs and those who consumed less UPFs. Players with higher consumption of UPFs had lower abundance of the order Veillonellales-Selenomonadales in their respective microbiotas, more precisely, of family Veillonellaceae (p = 0.040) and the genus Agathobacter (p = 0.025). These results suggest that the consumption of UPFs did not affect athletes’ performance but does impact their gut microbiota. Further studies on this issue are warranted to establish nutritional guidelines for athletes regarding the consumption of UPFs.
... Research has identified that young adults globally have poor diet quality compared to other adults [6][7][8][9], with high consumption of ultra-processed foods [6] and low intake of fruits and vegetables [7] and whole grains [8]. Furthermore, early adulthood is a period associated with poor eating habits and rapid weight gain. ...
... Research has identified that young adults globally have poor diet quality compared to other adults [6][7][8][9], with high consumption of ultra-processed foods [6] and low intake of fruits and vegetables [7] and whole grains [8]. Furthermore, early adulthood is a period associated with poor eating habits and rapid weight gain. ...
This study examined young Japanese adults’ values regarding the consumption of balanced meals consisting of staples, main dishes, and side dishes and how these values relate to demographics, socioeconomic status, nutrition knowledge, attitudes, skills, behaviors, and diet-related quality of life. Data were obtained from the “Survey on Dietary Habits of the Younger Generation” (2000 responses, ages 18–39), of which 1888 valid responses were analyzed. The principal component analysis identified three value patterns: PC1—valuable yet burdensome; PC2—environment-reliant, weak initiative; and PC3—low value due to hassle. Both PC1 and PC3 were associated with prioritizing prices in food choices and knowledge of a balanced meal. However, PC1 participants valued balanced meals and possessed meal preparation skills, whereas PC3 participants valued balanced meals less and had negative attitudes toward eating them. PC1 was positively associated with the frequency of eating balanced meals while PC3 was negatively associated. PC2 individuals had positive attitudes toward eating balanced meals but were less concerned about nutritional balance when choosing foods themselves. This study highlights the importance of adopting an approach that aligns with the value patterns of the target population.
... The explanations for the differences in MSM consumption between sexes, age groups and education may be because, being a UP food, MSM is likely to be mostly consumed by individuals who also have UP foods in their dietary habits, and studies have shown that UP consumption is related to younger age and male sex 37 . Socioeconomic inequality, including a lower educational level, may lead to a preference for less expensive, less nutritious foods 38 . No studies have yet investigated variables associated with the consumption of MSM, but the literature on the broader class of UP foods confirms our findings. ...
... (class in which MSM are present) was higher among men, younger adults, and those with fewer years of formal education 39 . In addition to this study, a systematic review of the global consumption of UP foods observed high variability based on sex and age, with men and young people generally showing higher levels of consumption compared to older individuals 38 . It is worth mentioning that, in our results, when controlling by age, greater consumption of MSM was also related to greater waist circumference. ...
Mechanically separated meat (MSM) is widely used in the food industry, however, there is a lack of studies on its consumption in populations. The objective of this study was to identify the frequency and amount of MSM consumption, factors associated with MSM consumption, nutrient intake and preferential choice of food groups among MSM consumers. This was an observational, cross-sectional prospective study based on a probability sample of manufacturing workers, conducted in Brazil. Logistic and linear multiple regression with robust standard errors were used. 921 workers from 33 manufacturing companies were studied, with an average age of 38.2 ± 10.7 years, 55.9% males. MSM products are consumed by 28.8% and represent in average 10% of total daily caloric intake, and 47.3% of the daily kcal from ultra-processed products. Younger age and greater waist circumference are associated with MSM consumption. Younger age and lesser educational level are associated with increased contribution of MSM to total daily kcal intake. MSM consumers have greater consumption of energy, fats, carbohydrates and sodium. Their dietary patterns are characterized by lower consumption of in natura and minimally processed foods, such as tubers and roots, fruits, white and red meat, and eggs and greater consumption of ultra-processed foods and beverages.
... Across the globe, UPF consumption varies significantly, with developed nations exhibiting the highest levels, while other regions, such as Mediterranean countries have comparatively lower consumption (10-70% of total energy intake) [9,10]. In India, a study was carried out among adolescents from low-and middle-income families in Delhi which found a mean contribution of UPFs as 16.2% of the total energy intake [11]. ...
... Also, 26.5% of the participants did not have UPFs in their diet. Countries like the US and the UK reported more than 50% of the contribution from UPF whereas Mediterranean countries like Italy reported the lowest level of around 10% [10]. In Brazil, a study among fifthgrade students revealed that UPF constituted 31% of their total energy intake [9]. ...
Purpose
To determine the contribution of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) to overall macronutrient intake and their association with anthropometric measurements, and to explore the perceptions regarding UPF consumption among young adults in Puducherry, India.
Methods
This study included 630 participants from three colleges selected using multistage cluster sampling. Following the demonstration of portion estimation, dietary data from previous day were collected using a Google Form-based tool. The participant’s anthropometric measures were taken. Food items were classified into NOVA groups and intake analysis was performed using DietSoft software. The participants with low and high consumption were identified and focus group discussions were conducted in each group using criterion sampling.
Results
Of all the participants, 178 (28.3%) were overweight or obese. UPF contributed 9.3% of total energy intake and 2.8% protein, 9.9% fat, and 9.9% carbohydrates. The most consumed UPFs were biscuits, wafers (25%), and potato chips(16.2%). No significant association was found between anthropometric measures and UPF consumption. Qualitative findings revealed four major themes, further explained using the socio-ecological framework.
Conclusion
UPF consumption in the region was lower than that reported in other global and Indian studies. While our study did not find a significant association between UPF consumption and anthropometric measures, there is a concerning shift from traditional diets to increased UPF reliance, driven by convenience and commercial factors. Addressing this is crucial for healthier choices and combating non-communicable diseases during this pivotal life stage.
... The average UPFs consumption in this study was 37.6% (SD 9.9%), which is consistent with the latest data on the shopping baskets of Spanish households 3 and below the average consumption observed in the United Kingdom and in the United States of America. 30 Spanish mean UPFs consumption is similar to that in Italy and seems to be inversely associated with adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern. 30,31 This inverse relationship may suggest they are inherently linked, as supported by our results regarding the consumption of the main food groups. ...
... 30 Spanish mean UPFs consumption is similar to that in Italy and seems to be inversely associated with adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern. 30,31 This inverse relationship may suggest they are inherently linked, as supported by our results regarding the consumption of the main food groups. Overall, 48.7% of participants reported a free sugar intake over 10% of TEI. ...
Background
The consumption of ultra‐processed foods (UPFs) is associated with an increased risk of noncommunicable diseases and mortality in adults. The aim of this study was to analyse the association between mealtime television (TV) watching and UPF consumption in childhood.
Materials and Methods
Participants in the SENDO project recruited in 2015–2023 were classified into three categories based on the frequency at which they watched TV during meals. Dietary information was collected with a validated 147‐item semi‐quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Generalized mixed models were used to compare mean UPF consumption between groups after accounting for the main confounders. The predictive margins of participants who had a free sugar intake >10% of their energy intake in each category were also calculated.
Results
Totally 970 subjects (482 girls) with a mean age of 5.00 years (SD = 0.85) were studied. Children who watched TV during meals ≥4 times/week consumed a mean of 4.67% more energy from UPF than those who watch TV <3 times/month. The adjusted proportions of children who had a free sugar intake >10% of their energy intake in the categories of <3 times/month, 1–3 times/week and ≥4 times/week exposure to TV during meals were 44.9%, 45.9% and 58.7%, respectively.
Conclusion
TV watching during meals is associated with higher consumption of UPFs and a higher risk of exceeding 10% of TEI in free sugar intake in childhood.
... Greater attention needs to be paid to women, given their higher consumption of UPF depending on the context in which they live (Silva et al., 2021). Additionally, age also plays an influential role in the consumption of these food items, since UPF consumption generally decreases with increasing age (Marino et al., 2021). ...
This study aimed to assess the consumption of ultra‐processed foods (UPF) and identify their association with obesity and abdominal obesity in adult women of reproductive age living in situations of social vulnerability in Maceió, Northeastern Brazil. This was a cross‐sectional study carried out between October 2020 and May 2021. An anthropometric evaluation was carried out to assess obesity and abdominal obesity. A dietary assessment was also conducted using a 24‐h food recall to determine the calorie intake from UPF. To estimate intra‐individual variability in food consumption, the probabilistic Multiple Source Method was used. These data in the form of tertiles were used to analyse the association between the consumption of UPF and obesity and abdominal obesity. Logistic regressions were used to analyse the association. A directed acyclic graph (DAG) was created for this analysis. This study included 1702 women of which 53.7% were 31 years old or older, and 74.2% lived in poverty. It identified that 36.5% and 38.1% of the women had obesity and abdominal obesity, respectively, and that an average of 33.8% of calories consumed came from UPF. In the analysis of association guided by the DAG, it was observed that women with a high‐calorie intake from UPF had a 1.3 times higher probability of being obese. It was also observed that women with a moderate and high‐calorie intake from UPF were 1.4 and 1.3 times more likely, respectively, to have abdominal obesity. Thus, it can be concluded that socially vulnerable women in Brazil have a relatively high consumption of UPF and that this condition increases the probability of obesity in this population group.
... The studies report types of UPF that show a higher dietary intake, such as carbonated drinks, bakery goods, sweets and chocolate. 11,12 However, the classification of types of UPF varies considerably between studies, making it difficult to compare them. 13 In addition, studies on the timing of UPF consumption focus on eating episodes outside the home and the time of eating, but not on UPF consumption per meal. ...
... 34 It is therefore possible to propose that, among low-income women, as well as the Brazilian population in general, around onefifth of the total energy intake during the day comes from UPF, which corroborates previous evidence indicating that the share of UPF in the Brazilian diet is still lower than in some high-income countries in which the percentage of energy intake from UPF exceeds 50% of total energy intake, such as the USA and the UK. 11 In the sample, we observed a different eating pattern to that expected for main meals because we found a T A B L E 2 Food consumption characteristics and physical activity pattern indicators of the sample (n = 56). ...
Background
The present study aimed to investigate the type and timing of ultra‐processed foods (UPF) consumption and its association with dietary intake (DI) and physical activity (PA) in women with obesity living in poverty.
Methods
A cross‐sectional study was employed. Obesity was defined by at least two criteria (body mass index, waist circumference or % fat mass). Poverty was defined as the three lowest classes of the Brazilian Economic Classification Criterion. PA was measured with triaxial accelerometers and DI was assessed with three 24‐h dietary recalls. Foods were categorised according to the NOVA classification, with UPF classified into five subgroups, as well as the timing of consumption into six meals.
Results
In total, 56 adult women were included. Overall energy intake was 1653.21 (503.22) kcal/day. UPF intake was 21.62% (11.94%) kcal/day, being higher at breakfast (4.91% kcal/day), afternoon snack (5.39% kcal/day) and dinner (5.01% kcal/day). Only UPF subgroup 4 (sandwich biscuits, sweets, or treats) showed a positive association with energy intake (β = 54.40 [27.6, 81.10] kcal/day) and a negative association with protein intake (β = −0.31% [−0.48%, −0.14%] kcal/day). UPF consumption in morning (β = −0.41% [−0.79%, −0.02%] kcal/day) and afternoon (β = −0.18% [−0.33%, −0.04%] kcal/day) snacks was associated with lower protein intake. Furthermore, lunchtime UPF consumption was positively associated with walking time (β = 0.16% [0.02%; 0.30%]) and steps/hour (β = 8.72 [1.50; 15.94] steps/h).
Conclusions
Women with obesity living in poverty consume more UPF during breakfast, afternoon snack and dinner. Physical activity is positively associated with UPF consumption at lunch. UPF, such as sandwich biscuits, sweets or treats, contribute to increasing energy intake and reducing protein intake.
... Despite the ambiguity and lack of consensus regarding UPFs classification and their contribution to NCD risk, it is essential to emphasize their practical importance in the global food system. As an exemplar, consider the United States of America, where UPFs contribute more than half of the population's caloric intake [4][5][6][30][31][32]. Juul et al. (2022) corroborate these data by analyzing nine cross-sectional waves of the NHANES dietary trends according to processing level from 2001 to 2002 to 2017 to 2018 [33]. ...
The prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) has steadily increased in the United States. Health experts attribute the increasing prevalence of NCDs, in part, to the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) based on epidemiological observations. However, no definitive evidence of causality has been established. Consequently, there is an ongoing debate over whether adverse health outcomes may be due to the low nutrient density per kilocalorie, the processing techniques used during the production of UPFs, taste preference-driven overconsumption of calories, or unidentified factors. Recognizing that “the science is not settled,” we propose an investigative process in this narrative review to move the field beyond current controversies and potentially identify the basis of causality. Since many consumers depend on UPFs due to their shelf stability, affordability, availability, ease of use, and safety from pathogens, we also suggest a paradigm for guiding both the formulation of UPFs by food designers and the selection of UPFs by consumers.
... In particular ultra-processed food (UPF), whose consumption has globally increased over the past two decades, is unhealthy because it is rich in salts, added sugar, saturated and trans fats, and poor in fiber, minerals, and vitamins [5][6][7]. The consumption of UPF accounts for 20-60% of daily energy intake in different populations [8]. Moreover, food processing modifies its chemical, physical, and nutritional composition with the potential to limit the bioavailability of nutrients in the small intestine [9,10] and thus Cardiometabolic health [11]. ...
Background
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of death worldwide, although limited data are currently available regarding the impact of consuming ultra-processed food (UPF) on its incidence. Given the increased consumption of UPF in Iran, we aimed to investigate the association between UPF intake and CVD risk.
Methods
Individuals without CVD (n = 2050) aged ≥ 30 years old were recruited from the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS). Dietary data were collected using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and UPF intakes were assessed based on the Nova food classification. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models adjusted for potential confounders were used to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for the risk of CVD across tertiles of UPF intake.
Results
A 10.1% incidence of CVD occurred over a median follow-up of 10.6 years, with a 22% increase in CVD risk per each 50 g/day UPF intake. Participants with the highest intake of UPF had a 68% greater incidence of CVD compared to those with the lowest intake (HR = 1.68, 95% CI=1.14–2.48) after controlling for potential confounders. Regarding sub-groups of UPF, participants in the 3rd tertile compared to the reference had a significantly increased risk of CVD (HR = 1.56, 95% CI=1.04–2.34). Nevertheless, intake of bread, fast food, sweetened beverages, sweets and desserts, high-fat dairy products, and other UPFs were not associated with greater CVD risk.
Conclusion
Our findings support the hypothesis that the incidence of CVD is enhanced with the higher consumption of UPF in a representative sample of the Iranian population.
