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Lethal effect of CO 2 on juveniles of the cuttlefish Sepia lycidas (a), the squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana (b) and the prawn Marsupenaeus japonicus (c). Symbols show the exposure durations (circles: 6 h, triangles: 24 h, diamonds: 48 h, and squares: 72 h). Dotted lines show the 50% survival level.
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CO2 ocean storage is proposed as a possible measure to mitigate climate changes caused by increasing atmospheric concentrations of the gas. The feasibility of the measure has been intensively investigated, yet its biological impact on marine animals is still largely unknown. We investigated the acute CO2 tolerance of juveniles of three marine inver...
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... When LD50 and LT50 were not explicitly described in the papers, we calculated them with the Probit Analysis [38], or interpolated or assumed them from the mortality data or graphs in the papers. The compiled data set consists of 6 species of fish (56 data [39][40][41]), 14 species of crustacean (29 data [42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]), 4 species of mollusk (shellfish and cephalopod; 4 data [39,[52][53][54][55]), and a species of echinoderm (1 datum [55]). ...
When carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored in sub-seabed geological formations, the environmental impact assessment assuming CO2 leakage and monitoring CO2 concentration in the sea are mandatory in Japan. The marine environment is not impacted by CO2 storage itself but by the unlikely event of leakage. Thus, it is referred to as potential environmental impact assessment (PEIA). We conducted an ocean simulation for Hidaka Bay off Hokkaido, releasing passive tracers regarded as leaked CO2. Biological impact data were newly compiled, and 4 thresholds for biological impacts depending on both the increase in partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and exposure time were set. The increase in pCO2 estimated in the simulation, assuming CO2 leak rates of 1,000 tonnes/y and 10,000 tonnes/y, exceeded no thresholds. The tracer concentration became almost equilibrium within about a week after the commencement of the release, and the increase in pCO2 was much larger in summer than winter. These results suggest that the simulation of leaked CO2 for PEIA be run for about a month in summer, and that monitoring CO2 concentration be also conducted in summer. It is also implied that monitoring pCO2 could detect leakage at O(10⁴) tonnes/y or larger than it.
... A change in the hemolymph pH creates favorable conditions for the production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative stress and damage to cell structures such as lipid membranes, proteins, and DNA (Lushchak 2011;Wang et al. 2012). Kikkawa et al. (2008) evaluated the tolerance of juvenile Kuruma prawn, Marsupenaeus japonicus, to acute exposure to CO 2 and calculated the 72 h LC 50 as 14.3% of CO 2 . A LC 50 value of approximately 50% for the same exposure period was found in this study, which was lower than those obtained in the Kikkawa et al. study. ...
... During the present study, we observed a loss of equilibrium in the shrimp before death. Such behavior was also observed by Kikkawa et al. (2008). ...
Elevated concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and reduced pH levels are observed during the culture and transportation of aquatic organisms. Studies on the toxicity effects of CO2 in penaeid shrimp are scarce when compared to the amount of research in fish. The objective of the present study was to determine the lethal concentration and safety levels of CO2 for juvenile white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Juveniles (1.76 ± 0.36 g) were exposed for 96 h to one of six concentrations of dissolved CO2 (14.5, 23.8, 59.0, 88.0, 115.0, and 175.0 mg/L) or a control condition (without the addition of CO2), and their survival was monitored for 96 h. The LC50 values with 95% confidence limits at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h were 130.05 (104.2–162.1), 77.2 (73.8–80.02), 69.65 (65.47–74.32), and 59.12 (53.08–66.07) mg/L of CO2, respectively. The calculated safety level was 5.9 mg/L of CO2, and the highest concentration that did not induce significantly higher mortality than that observed in controls (NOEC) was 23.8 mg/L of CO2. We recommend that CO2 levels should be kept below the safety level obtained in this study.
... Chitosan, a biopolymer, is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1-4) length D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine obtained by partial deacetylation of chitin and is structurally similar to cellulose which is composed of only monomer of glucose [2]. The main source of chitosan is from crustaceans waste, which is also the main cell wall material of most fungi [3,4], cuticles of insects, yeast or green algae [5], crab and shrimp shells, oysters and lobsters [6]. ...
... During this study, a loss of equilibrium was observed in the shrimp in the 95, 150, and 300 mgCO 2 /L treatments. The same behavior was also observed by Kikkawa et al. (2008). In addition, the shrimp in the 300 mgCO 2 /L treatment exhibited the same symptoms of anesthesia during the first 115 min of exposure to CO 2 . ...
A failure in the aeration system of Litopenaeus vannamei rearing with biofloc technology can decrease the oxygen concentrations rapidly and also increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations at the same rate. We report here an evaluation of the effect of CO2 on the oxygen consumption of L. vannamei. We used a continuous-flow respirometer with water recirculation equipped with a digital fiber-optic oximeter. Eight juveniles of L. vannamei (12.1 ± 1. 4 g) were used in each treatment with one per respiratory chamber (0.6 L). The shrimp were exposed to six concentrations of CO2 (5, 30, 60, 95, 150, and 300 mgCO2/L) with an acute exposure time of six hours. Upon treatment with 5–30 mgCO2/L, we observed a consumption of oxygen of 0.233 ± 0.129 and 0.33 ± 0.072 mgO2/g/h, respectively. Upon treatment with 60 mgCO2/L, an increase was observed in the oxygen consumption (0.521 ± 0.098 mgO2/g/h). Upon treatment with 95, 150, and 300 mgCO2/L however, the shrimp decreased their oxygen consumption and lost their equilibrium. The CO2 should therefore be maintained at a maximum of 5 mgCO2/L during shrimp rearing.
... c: Lateral view of an ephyra showing inversion and convolution of the ephyral arms, which occurred 24 h after returning to normocapnic seawater following 96h exposure to 50,000 matm pCO 2 . (Kikkawa et al. 2003), and 100% mortality in juveniles of the squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Lesson) within 48 h (Kikkawa et al. 2008). To elucidate the observed differences in CO 2 tolerance between animals, we hypothesized an inverse relationship between the O 2 requirement and the CO 2 tolerance among marine animals: active animals with a high O 2 demand, such as fish and cephalopods, are more susceptible to acutely increased ambient CO 2 than inactive species like prawn and lugworm (Kikkawa et al. 2008). ...
... (Kikkawa et al. 2003), and 100% mortality in juveniles of the squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Lesson) within 48 h (Kikkawa et al. 2008). To elucidate the observed differences in CO 2 tolerance between animals, we hypothesized an inverse relationship between the O 2 requirement and the CO 2 tolerance among marine animals: active animals with a high O 2 demand, such as fish and cephalopods, are more susceptible to acutely increased ambient CO 2 than inactive species like prawn and lugworm (Kikkawa et al. 2008). If this hypothesis is correct, the ephyrae of A. aurita sensu Mangum et al. (1972) are expected to have a low O 2 requirement. ...
... If this hypothesis is correct, the ephyrae of A. aurita sensu Mangum et al. (1972) are expected to have a low O 2 requirement. In fact, Mangum et al. (1972) reported an O 2 consumption rate of 0.108 mL g wet weight Ϫ1 h Ϫ1 on newly detached ephyrae of Aurelia sp. at 22°C, which is comparable to the O 2 consumption rate (0.11 to 0.16 mL g wet weight Ϫ1 h Ϫ1 ) of the prawn Marsupenaeus japonicus (Bate), which is one of the most CO 2 tolerant marine animals known (the 24-h median pCO 2 tolerance limits Ͼ150,000 matm, Kikkawa et al., 2008). In addition, the lugworm Perinereis aibuhitensis Grube shows similarly very high CO 2 tolerance, and even though O 2 consumption rate has not been directly determined for this species, it probably has a low O 2 consumption rate as inferred from the value (0.056 to 0.081 mL g wet weight Ϫ1 h Ϫ1 ) reported for another lugworm Arenicola marina (Linnaeus) (Toulmond 1975). ...
Ephyrae of the scyphozoan jellyfish, Aurelia, were exposed to hypercapnic seawater (pCO2 5,000 to 50,000 μatm) for 96 h, to study the impacts of potential CO2 seepage from a geological storage site beneath the ocean floor. Geological CO2 storage has been proposed as a mitigation measure against global warming but ecological consequences in the case of seepage are largely unknown. No mortality occurred within the pCO2 range used in the present study. Swimming arm pulsation was significantly depressed in animals exposed to 5,000 μatm pCO2 compared to control animals, and immediately ceased in animals exposed to ≥30,000 μatm. When returned to normocapnic seawater (pCO2 380 μatm) after 96 h exposure to 50,000 μatm pCO2, some ephyrae showed strong arm inversion. These results indicate that even though Aurelia is able to survive short-term exposure to pCO2 of up to 50,000 μatm, the strong inhibition of swimming activities under these conditions would reduce the environmental fitness of affected animals.
... Relationships documented between cephalopod stock dynamics and environmental conditions are of two main types: (i) those concerning the geographic distribution of abundance, for which the mechanism is often unknown; and (ii) those relating to biological processes, such as egg survival, growth, recruitment, and migration, where mechanisms are sometimes known - and, in a very few cases, supported by experimental evidence. Of particular interest are recent experimental studies, such as Rosa and Seibel (2008) and Kikkawa et al. (2008), which examine effects of elevated CO2 levels on cephalopods, and a recent study by André et al. (2009), which uses captive-rearing data to model the effect of temperature on individual growth curves. ...
... Relationships documented between cephalopod stock dynamics and environmental conditions are of two main types: (i) those concerning the geographic distribution of abundance, for which the mechanism is often unknown; and (ii) those relating to biological processes, such as egg survival, growth, recruitment, and migration, where mechanisms are sometimes known - and, in a very few cases, supported by experimental evidence. Of particular interest are recent experimental studies, such as Rosa and Seibel (2008) and Kikkawa et al. (2008), which examine effects of elevated CO2 levels on cephalopods, and a recent study by André et al. (2009), which uses captive-rearing data to model the effect of temperature on individual growth curves. ...
... Relationships documented between cephalopod stock dynamics and environmental conditions are of two main types: (i) those concerning the geographic distribution of abundance, for which the mechanism is often unknown; and (ii) those relating to biological processes, such as egg survival, growth, recruitment, and migration, where mechanisms are sometimes known - and, in a very few cases, supported by experimental evidence. Of particular interest are recent experimental studies, such as Rosa and Seibel (2008) and Kikkawa et al. (2008), which examine effects of elevated CO2 levels on cephalopods, and a recent study by André et al. (2009), which uses captive-rearing data to model the effect of temperature on individual growth curves. ...
... Longlasting reductions of plasma Cl -, possible reductions of hepatic metabolism, and a shift to anaerobic metabolism (see 'Energetic costs of living in high CO 2 oceans') deserve attention in elucidating mechanism(s) of fish mortality during long-term exposure to environmental hypercapnia. Recently, Kikkawa et al. (2008) indicated an inverse relationship between acute CO 2 mortality and oxygen consumption among marine animals. ...
Research interest in CO2-driven ocean acidification has been centered on certain groups of calcifying marine organisms, but knowledge on the possible impacts of ocean acidification on fish is limited. Our survey of the existing literature on the effects of increased pCO2 on fish (total of 116 papers) revealed that few studies were conducted under pCO2 conditions relevant to the future scenarios of ocean acidification. Information is nearly absent on reproduction, early development, and behaviour of marine fish. The short experimental durations of these studies preclude forecasting of how mortality and growth of marine fish would be affected by future increases in seawater CO2. Fish have been shown to maintain their oxygen consumption under elevated pCO2 conditions, in contrast to declines seen in several marine invertebrates, in spite of possible additional energetic costs incurred by higher pCO2. Impacts of prolonged CO2 exposure on reproduction, early development, growth, and behaviour of marine fish are important areas that need urgent investigation. There is also a need to rapidly advance research into possible acclimation of marine fish to high pCO2 environments, endocrine responses to prolonged CO2 exposure, and indirect influences through food availability and quality on fish growth, survival and reproduction. Useful guidance could be gained from the rich literature on the effects of freshwater acidification
Sepia lycidas belongs to the genus Sepia, the family Sepiidae, the orders Sepioidea, and the class Cephalopoda. It is a warm-ocean demersal Cephalopoda with larger size, delicious meat and high nutrition value. It inhabits off shore waters at a depth of 15-100 m, and is mainly distributed from the Indian Ocean to the western Pacific. The average weight of Sepia lycidas was 0.6 kg after 4 months cultivation, and the heaviest young Sepia lycidas could reach 1 kg. Because of its short raising duration and high yield, raising Sepia lycidas has a high development potential in China. Ecological factor is one of the important factors for the growth and development potential in China. Ecological factor is one of the important factors for the growth and development of marine organisms. The impact of ecological factors on the embryonic development of Sepia lycidas was studied in this paper, which helps us to learn the ececological principle and mechanism between them and the environment better. In order to get the optimum salinity, photoperiod, hatching density and dissolved oxygen concentration of embryonic development of Sepia lycidas, their effects on embryonic development were investigated. Single- factor test was used to study the effects of salinity(18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36), photoperiod L:D(0 h:24 h, 6 h:18 h, 12 h:12 h), hatching density (3, 6, 9, 12, 15 ind/ L) on hatching rate, nurturing cycle, incubation cycle, completely absorked rate of yolk sac and weight of newly hatched larvae of Sepia lycidas embryos under indoor control condition. The results showed that the embryonic development of Sepia lycidas was significantly affected by salinity (P<0.05). The suitable salinity for hatching ranged from 27.0 to 33.0 and the optimum salinity was 30.0. Hatching rate, nurturing cycle, incubation cycle, completely absorked rate of yolk sacwas and weight of newly hatched larvae were (93.33±2.89)%, (25.67±0.58) d, (5.33±0.58) d, (89.27±0.33)% and (0.247±0.006) g under the optimum salinity respectively. Photoperiod had not a significantly effect (P>0.05) on incubation cycle of Sepia lycidas, but had a significantly effect on other indicators (P<0.05). The optimum photoperiod is L :D(6 h :18 h). Hatching rate, nurturing cycle, incubation cycle, completely absorked rate of yolk sacwas and weight of newly hatched larvae were (80.33±2.89)%, (35.67±0.57) d, (4.67±0.57) d, (82.18±7.72)% and 0.243±0.012 g under optimum photoperiod, respectively. The embryonic development of Sepia lycidas was significantly affected by dissolved oxygen concentration (P < 0. 01). Embryos could not develop when Oxygen concentration in water is less than 5.55 mg/ L. The embryonic development of Sepia lycidas was also significantly affected by hatching density when air was provided(P<0.05). The suitable hatching density ranged from 3 ind/ L to 9 ind/ L and the optimum hatching density was 6 ind/ L. Hatching rate, nurturing cycle, incubation cycle, completely absorked rate of yolk sacwas and weight of newly hatched larvae were (96.67±2.89)%, (29.67±0.58) d, (5.67±1.15) d, (89.65±0.31)% and (0.244±0.005) g under the optimum hatching density respectively. Taken together, our results indicated that the suitable salinity for hatching ranged from 27.0 to 33.0, optimum photoperiod was L :D(6 h :18 h), and suitable hatching density ranged from 3 ind/ L to 9 ind/ L, because of the high hatchability and post-hatching survival, and the fastest growth of hatchlings in these thermal regimes.
