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Laser sailors have to tolerate fatiguing contractions of the lower-body muscles for prolonged periods. The aims of the present study were (1) to evaluate the difference between top-ranked and club sailors, in their capacity to resist fatigue during sustained isometric and maximal power exercise, and (2) to examine the relationships between the abov...
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... m raw EMG value, T total time of re- cording (Cram et al ., 1998). The %MVCs and their matching %EMG RMSmax were plotted as a scattergram, to define the individual %MVC/ %EMG RMSmax curve (Cram et al ., 1998), for each leg separately (Figure 1). 2. A Laser simulation endurance test to the limit of tolerance on a specifically designed simulator previously described by Vogiatzis et al . (1996) (Figure 2). During the test, the participants were asked to maintain a series of two-legged hiking bouts lasting 3 min, each punctuated by brief intervals, lasting 5 s each, to relieve the discomfort. Rectus femoris EMG signals were recorded from both legs throughout the bouts. To counterbalance the participant’s weight, free weights were applied to the opposite side of the simulator’s platform. The test finished when the participant could no longer keep the platform hori- zontal. Heart rate was recorded by a three-lead ECG at baseline, and throughout the test. Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure were measured with a standard sphygmomanometer every 3 min throughout the test and just before the end of the test, when the participant announced that he would not be able to sustain the effort for more than a ...
Context 2
... %MVCs and their matching %EMG RMSmax were plotted as a scattergram, to define the individual %MVC/ %EMG RMSmax curve (Cram et al., 1998), for each leg separately ( Figure 1). 2. A Laser simulation endurance test to the limit of tolerance on a specifically designed simulator pre- viously described by Vogiatzis et al. (1996) (Figure 2). During the test, the participants were asked to maintain a series of two-legged hiking bouts lasting 3 min, each punctuated by brief intervals, lasting 5 s each, to relieve the discomfort. ...
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Citations
... For single-handed dinghy sailors and the helmsmen of 470, the hiking during upwind and reaching sailing is the major physical challenge, and the hiking performance is an important determinant of race result 42 . When sailing in strong winds, the helmsmen use the toe straps to hike over the side and suspend the rest of the body over the water, so as to counter the moment generated by the wind on the sail to tilt the hull and keep the boat as upright as possible, which imposes essentially isometric stress on the quadriceps 41 . Studies have shown that hiking is a dynamic and aerobic movement technique with isometric moments, which is superimposed with jerks approximate the maximum voluntary contraction on the background of isometric contraction 43 . ...
This study aimed to analyze anthropometric and physiological profiles of highly trained sailors and the differences between sailors regarding various training levels. Forty-two sailors (22 male, 22.4 ± 3.8 years; 20 females, 21.3 ± 3.6 years) were divided into helmsmen and crew groups, and the high- and low-level were distinguished. Sailors completed height, sitting height, legs length, weight, BMI, VO2max, 30 s all-out sprint, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), countermovement jump, bench pull, core endurance tests. The results showed the crew had higher height, sitting height, weight, VO2max and lower trunk flexor endurance test times compared to the helmsmen (p < 0.05). The helmsmen had higher relative peak power/force in the 30 s all-out sprint and IMTP tests compared to the crew, whereas the crew had better absolute strength in bench pull, with significant differences between female sailors (p < 0.05). The high-level sailors showed more sailing experience than low-level sailors (p < 0.05). In conclusion, highly trained crew tend to be taller and heavier, while helmsmen have better trunk flexor endurance. For female sailors, helmsmen have better lower-body power and strength and crew have better upper-body strength. Sailing experience is a reliable variable to distinguish sailors’ levels. The specific anthropometric and physiological profiles of sailors in various positions can assist sailing coaches in athlete selection and intervention training.
... The strong stress on the target muscles is caused by the unequivocal partial ischemia typical of prolonged isometric positions. Thus, with the maintenance of these prolonged positions, physiological consequences may occur, such as a reduction in blood flow with consequent overload of the cardiac system and lactate production [11][12][13][14][15]. The constant movement of adjusting the body through the hiking technique in response to wind and sea conditions leads to a continuous overload of the athlete's muscles. ...
... In other studies, such as the one conducted by Vangelakoudi et al. [11], levels of anaerobic capacity and isometric endurance were analysed, highlighting greater power and endurance in elite sailors compared to amateur sailors. Studies such as those by Burnett et al. [9] examined muscle activation and adaptation to the specific demands of hiking, emphasising the importance of injury prevention and rehabilitation. ...
Purpose
Sailing is a water sport comprising several disciplines distinguished by the type of boat and number of crew. The sailor must constantly accommodate the movement of the hull according to the weather conditions. The study aims to provide targeted guidance regarding training and nutrition for sailor athletes.
Methods
Complete and effective training requires a synergistic combination of sport-specific elements and strategies designed to improve overall strength. Extensive discussion has been made of the types of workouts aimed at improving performance and preventing injury.
Results
Our research findings revealed that even though sailors’ training considers the development of strength, endurance, speed, balance, and coordination, which are necessary to counteract the continuous adaptations of posture to weather conditions, these athletes are exposed to the risk of injuries that predominantly affect the knee and lower back. Sailing is an aerobic/ anaerobic sport in which there are no explicit suggestions regarding the nutritional aspect and supplementation and what their contribution could be in improving performance.
Conclusions
We hypothesise that targeted training paths for sailing athletes and personalisation of nutritional suggestions by timing the intake of macro- and micronutrients as well as taking specific supplements, can reduce the risk of injury and better impact recovery and performance in this discipline.
... Olympic sailing is a complex sport where sailors are required to predict and interpret weather conditions while facing high physical and physiological demands (Bojsen-Møller et al., 2015). Physical requirements of Olympic sailing have been extensively investigated (Bojsen-Møller et al., 2015) and well-developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities of elite sailors (Bojsen-Møller et al., 2007;Vangelakoudi et al., 2007) suggest the importance of training those capacities in this sport. While optimal preparation is essential for winning a major championship (Mujika, 2014), physical and mental recovery during a transition period seem to be equally important in elite sports. ...
Olympic sailing is a complex sport where sailors are required to predict and interpret weather conditions while facing high physical and physiological demands. While it is essential for sailors to develop physical and physiological capabilities toward major competition, monitoring training status following the competition is equally important to minimize the magnitude of detraining and facilitate retraining. Despite its long history in the modern Olympics, reports on world-class sailors' training status and performance characteristics across different periodization phases are currently lacking. This case study aimed to determine the influence of training cessation and subsequent retraining on performance parameters in a world-class female sailor. A 31-year old female sailor, seventh in the Women's Sailing 470 medal race in Tokyo 2020, completely stopped training for 4 weeks following the Olympics, and resumed low-intensity training for 3 weeks. Over these 7 weeks, 12.7 and 5.3% reductions were observed in 6 s peak cycling power output and jump height, respectively, with a 4.7% decrease in maximal aerobic power output. Seven weeks of training cessation-retraining period induced clear reductions in explosive power production capacities but less prominent decreases in aerobic capacity. The current findings are likely attributed to the sailor's training characteristics during the retraining period.
... Bojsen-Møller classifies sailors according to their body position during the race, single-handed dinghy sailors and 470 helmsmen are "side-deck hikers" (sailors are sitting on the deck and leaning over the side with their feet fixed), 470 crew are trapeze sailors (sailors stand on the gunwale or side swings of the boat supported by a wire that is extended from the rigging). 3,4 The characteristics of different movement patterns compared to a sailing class and position, therefore there is a large variability of anthropometry and physical demands in sailors. Anthropometry characteristics define the structure of sailors and have a direct connection with biomechanical outputs, and physical fitness elements are related to economy and efficiency of movements, which are important factors in optimizing sailors' performance. ...
... 9 In addition, sailing performance is also affected by flexibility, power, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, which are incorporated into the sailor's physical training program along with strength and endurance. 4,10,11 At present, information is scarce regarding the physical fitness of different sailing classes, and we also don't know which factors have a greater impact on a sailors' performance, it is detrimental to the long-term development of sailing. In this study, one hundred and sixty-seven Chinese sailors participated in the 2020 National Sailing Championships, including single-handed dinghy and 470 classes (Laser, Laser Radial, 470 man and woman, 470 mixed). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in the physical fitness characteristics of Chinese single-handed dinghy and 470 sailors, predict the single-handed dinghy sailors’ physical factors on the performance by equation to guide the training. The sample of this study consisted of one hundred and sixty-seven Chinese sailors who participated in the 2020 China National Sailing Championships, K Independent Samples Test was used to analyze the differences of different classes sailors, and the performance of Laser and Laser Radial sailors were analyzed by step multivariate linear regression. The results showed that the 470 helmsmen are shorter, lighter and have a lower BMI, 470 crew are similar in height to the single-handed dinghy sailors, but lower in weight and BMI. Laser sailors have better strength and flexibility than the ones of male 470. There is no significant difference in the physical fitness characteristics between the Laser Radial sailors and the female 470 crew, they both had better upper and lower body strength than female 470 helmsmen. The regression equation is possible to explain 65.5% of the performance of the sailors in Laser = 90.963-1.33 × sailing experience-0.461 × bench press-0.018 × cycling peak power out; The regression equation is possible to explain 76.7% of the performance of the sailors in Laser Radial = 27.433-0.391 × sailing experience+0.351 × vertical jump-0.329 × pull-up-0.027 × cycling peak power out. Performance in laser and Laser Radial sailors will be determined by the technique and tactics (sailing experience) as well as physical fitness.
... Specifically, athletic preparation is capable of developing spatial ability [38], so athletes with more experience are able to extract critical information from a greater number of spatial references than novices [39]. Specifically, sailing experience has proven to be decisive for the development of strength, resistance and speed-oriented motor coordination and, therefore, for better sports performance [1,40,41]. In this sense, but in relation to psychological variables, experienced sailor decision-making is characterized by the cumulative non-linear effects of exploring and using information constraints in a regatta, making their performance better than the less experienced sailors [5]. ...
The objective of this study was to examine the role of spatial orientation in the performance of sport sailors. Participants were 30 elite male sailors from classes 420, Laser, Windsurfing RS:X and Windsurfing Techno, grouped into two categories: Monohull (18 sailors) and Windsurfing (12 sailors). Ages ranged between 13 and 18 years old (M = 15.7, SD = 1.05). To assess spatial orientation, the Perspective Taking/Spatial Orientation Test was used, and performance was inferred from the final classification at the regatta. In addition, the influence of experience and age on the performance was analyzed. The results show that in the Monohull group, the performance is determined by the spatial orientation (18% of the explained variance), while in the Windsurfing group, the variables that are related to performance are sailing experience and age (60% of the explained variance). Spatial orientation seems to be the more important variable for performance in the Monohull group, while in classes belonging to the Windsurfing group, this variable does not seem to be decisive for obtaining good results in the regatta.
... Therefore, age is a variable that affects the interpretation of these results. The Windsurfing class performs the hiking bench in a different way than the Laser class, since, in the Laser class, this technical gesture requires a greater involvement of the knee extensor muscles [31]. Therefore, these athletes will have a better adaptation to the strength and resistance of these muscles. ...
Strength asymmetries in the upper and lower limbs may affect the body movements of the joints or limbs. Although asymmetries in the upper limbs have been studied in sailors, those in lower limbs have not been evaluated in this sport population. The aims of this study were: (i) to analyze lower limb asymmetries in young elite sailors in order to quantify the magnitude of asymmetry between limbs for variables that were established as reliable in a healthy population, and (ii) to evaluate the presence of differences between classes and sexes in inter-limb asymmetries in elite youth sailors. Sixty-eight young Spanish elite sailors (9–19 years of age) participated voluntarily in our study. Single-leg vertical countermovement jump (VCJ), single-leg horizontal countermovement jump and hand dynamometry tests were used to evaluate the strength of the upper and lower limbs. More than 50% of the sailors presented asymmetries in the lower limbs. The boys’ group and Optimist class presented a greater percentage of strength asymmetry.
... Sailors were observed to regularly switch legs and constantly change their position, even under constant wind speeds.This helps to extend endurance by converting this to dynamic exercise which combats prolonged fatigue of lower body muscles (Spurway et al., 2007). Dynamic action 13 in hip flexors and abdominal muscles is used to continuously adjust the lever arm to match the heeling moment which requires high levels of aerobic and anaerobic fitness (Vangelakoudi et al., 2007). When sailing in gusting winds and large swell, dynamic hiking motions are used to control pitch over waves and abruptly respond to the changing heeling moment (Goodison, 2008). ...
... The mainsheet was attached to a bungee cord and video footage of sailing was played on a large screen throughout the tests. volumetric oxygen uptake rate, VO2, lactate and heart rate data was found to more closely resemble the on-water data than previous dynamic simulation studies.Due to the limitation of the apparatus it was not possible to change tack or hold sailor-led sessions, which have been identified as being key factors in other studies Vangelakoudi et al. (2007). Castagna and Brisswalter (2007) also conducted longer duration hiking tests including dynamic manoeuvres, including tacking, with the aim of replicating the energy demands of a regatta. ...
The performance analysis of Olympic sailor’s has typically been based on race outcomes, two boat testing, and formative feedback from athletes and coaches. Sailors body-motions are thought to be a key factor in the up-wind performance of a sailor. However, despite the focus of a large portion of sailing literature on improving body-motions, and international rules restricting the use of them in competition, no methods have been formulated to predict the performance impact of these motions, or to measure the unsteady loadings they exert on the sailboat.
A sailing-specific pose-capture method to estimate sailor loadings was developed and evaluated. StickMan uses a network of seven wireless inertial-magnetic motion trackers to measure a sailor’s hiking pose and boat orientation. A human mass distribution model was used to estimate body-segment mass properties to derive the external loads sailors exert on their boat. Hiking (roll) moment estimates were evaluated for accuracy using an instrumented motion platform under sinusoidal roll motion for sequences of static and dynamic hiking poses. Hiking moments estimated using pose-capture had an average 10.0% overestimate under dynamic conditions. The estimate had excellent transient and tracked reference measurements even under explosively dynamic hiking motion spanning 1000 Nm.
A global sensitivity analysis was performed on hiking moment estimates. The uncertainty for hiking poses was 712 ± 38 Nm (5.3%) which the human mass distribution model contributed up to 70 % towards. Instrumentation uncertainty, including orientation drift, was not significant for hiking poses over 8 knots of wind.
A case-study was performed to demonstrate the use of the method applied to the performance analysis of roll tacks and upwind hiking moment to make initial assessments of the performance implications of a sailor’s ability to perform roll tacks. GPS positions and wind sensors were used to build a simple model of how a sailor-controlled hiking moment can a↵ect boat speed. This shows the method was suitable for analysing dynamic hiking methods in terms of boat performance.
... Regarding performance, several studies have analyzed the relationship between performance and the sailor's physical fitness [4,16], biomechanics [11,[17][18][19][20], and psychological factors [21][22][23]. However, to our knowledge, not all aspects of technical and tactical performance have been thoroughly examined in dinghy sailing. ...
Laser class is an Olympic sport in which technical and tactical variables are very important in the performance of the sailor. However, the variables that determine performance in a regatta have not been studied, and less so with Olympic sailors. Therefore, the main objectives of this study are to analyze the technical and tactical variables that differentiate sailors based on their level of performance and sex and determine the most important courses in a regatta. The sample consists of 159 Olympic sailors (67 females) of the Laser class, who participated in a World Cup. Velocity made good (VMG), distance, and maneuvers were evaluated using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) devices in the upwind, downwind, and broad reach courses. VMG in upwind and downwind is the technical variable that determines performance in the Laser class. The VMG is decisive in the performance of elite female sailors in the upwind, downwind, and broad reach courses, while in elite male sailors, performance is mainly influenced by speed in upwind and downwind and the distance covered in upwind. The maneuvers do not determine sailing performance in any of the courses of a regatta.
... Nevertheless, it should be noted that sailing also relies on cognitive skills (Araújo et al., 2015) and that different racing strategies exist. Teams must regularly analyse weather and oceanographic reports to determine the most appropriate course (Thill, 1982). Other external parameters (e.g. ...
... Indeed, offshore sailors tended to be smaller and heavier (177 ± 7 cm and 78 ± 10 kg; Hurdiel et al., 2014) whilst measures reported on the 2002 TDF outlined the smaller and lighter profiles of sailors at the time (173 ± 6 cm and 62.6 ± 9.3 kg; Léger et al., 2008). The body fat of athletes in the study hereby (12.91 ± 4%) was similar to previously reported data of America's Cup sailors (13 ± 4%; Neville et al., 2009), and seems within the range (10-15%) of international and Olympic dinghy sailors (Bojsen-Møller et al., 2007;Vangelakoudi et al., 2007). Anthropometric characteristics vary according to competitive status, crew position, publishing date and sailing classification (Larsson et al., 1996). ...
This study aimed to determine the key performance indicators of inshore sailing during the sailing Tour de France. Technical and physical parameters were investigated to determine the discriminating factors between successful and less successful international level sailors. Measurements from 21 sailors (mean ± SD; age = 23.81 ± 4.18 years) were conducted prior to the sailing Tour de France. Global Positioning System data of all participating teams (n = 23) was analysed. Sailors were divided into two groups (i.e. successful and less successful) according to qualifying performance percentage. The differences between successful and less successful sailors were explored by means of independent t-tests. Results indicate that successful boats displayed higher maximal speed, higher average speed and more efficient starting performance per race than less successful boats. Successful sailors have stronger handgrip strength, higher isometric maximal voluntary force relative to bodyweight (isometric mid-thigh pull) and more powerful submaximal pulling (bench pull) actions than their less successful counterparts. The results of this study suggest that multiple sailing, physical and physiological variables are related to sailing performance in inshore sailing. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of integrating specific testing protocols to evaluate the performance potential of inshore sailors participating in the sailing Tour de France.
... Studies on energy metabolism in dinghy sailors are mainly focused on the action of hiking bench, showing maximum oxygen consumptions (VO 2max ) in the range of 35-45% VO 2max [6,9,10]. The most important factors in the performance of the sailor are the muscular endurance of the main musculature involved in the hiking action and the maximum isometric strength of the quadriceps [11,12]. Some studies have shown that the level of aerobic capacity in elite sailors is like that of athletes from other sports disciplines [6,13]. ...
... In response to the high demands for isometric strength and resistance that sailors must face [11,12], as well as the high % VO 2max they reach as the speed increases [9,14], those athletes who consume caffeine (20% sailors of international level and 25% of those of national level) can benefit from the use of this supplement. Since the molecular form resembles that of adenosine, caffeine blocks adenosine receptors, activating the central nervous system, which decreases the subjective perception of effort, while enhancing glycolytic metabolism, neuromuscular recruitment, and the bioavailability of calcium in myoplasm [52]; moreover, previous studies have demonstrated its ergogenic effect on the improvement of muscle strength [53] and in the face of high-intensity efforts [54]. ...
The sports performance of dinghy sailors is determined by their state of nutrition and hydration. Sports supplementation plays a prominent role in elite sailors, being essential in periods of competition due to its characteristics. This study aims to analyze the consumption of sports supplements (SS) in the different categories and groups of sailors based on the level of evidence, differentiating according to sex, competitive level, and type of boat. A total of 42 sailors from national and international levels and belonging to the Laser, 420, Techno-293 and RS:X classes participated in this study. They completed a questionnaire with questions about the consumption of SS and the possible repercussions on health and/or sports performance. The results were analyzed based on the different categorizations and group organization recently established by the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), as well as by sex, level of competition and class to which the participants belonged. The male sailors and those who competed internationally had a higher prevalence in the consumption of SS. Among the classes of vessels studied, class 420 had the lowest SS consumption. SS intake was higher during competition days, regardless of sex or level of competition. Based on the classification established by the AIS, statistically significant differences were observed in sex, level of competition, and the type of boat.
