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The Republic of South Africa (RSA), often seen as the “Powerhouse of Africa” is facing major
energy challenges. (Un)planned outages, energy shortages, blackouts, high energy tariffs,
many years of underinvestment in power infrastructure and energy poverty in low income
households are the main issues. To eradicate this, the RSA government has rolled...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... bid windows will continue annually until the required amount of renewable energy is secured. The results from the first 3 bid windows are summarised in Table 2, with detailed data given in Appendix A. However, some recent concerns have been expressed and issues have been raised with some of the projects (26) being connected to the grid run by Eskom. Table 2 clearly shows that the learnings from each bid window have been steep. ...Context 2
... results from the first 3 bid windows are summarised in Table 2, with detailed data given in Appendix A. However, some recent concerns have been expressed and issues have been raised with some of the projects (26) being connected to the grid run by Eskom. Table 2 clearly shows that the learnings from each bid window have been steep. One of the key learnings was the move to annual bid windows, not twice yearly, as was the case for the first two. ...Context 3
... is due to the fact that investing in power generation infrastructure in the short-term will add significantly to manufacturing capital costs and thus impact on competitiveness. Table A.2 lists the renewable power projects that have been awarded under the REIPPPP bid windows, grouped by type. i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 6 6 8 5 e1 6 7 0 1 r e f e r e n c e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 1 6 6 8 5 e1 6 7 0 1 ...Citations
... While energy is undeniably an important ingredient for economic growth, South Africa finds itself gripped by a prolonged energy crisis. Chronic underinvestment in the electricity sector has led to escalating power prices and a shortage of capacity during peak demand periods, resulting in demand rationing and blackouts, which have had severe economic implications [45]. The rising energy demand has started to overwhelm the existing power generating plants in South Africa and likely to affect the welfare of many South Africans [20]. ...
... In 2022, South Africa witnessed the worst loadshedding compared with the previous year's, amounting to an outage duration of 3773 h or 11,529 GWh energy shed [5]. The major energy shortages, from unplanned outages, energy shortages, blackouts, and high energy tariffs, follow mainly from many years of underinvestment in power infrastructure and energy poverty in low-income households [45]. The poor performance and high maintenance of costs of Eskom's coal fleet (Eskom presently stands as South Africa's largest power entity, responsible for about 96% of the country's electricity generation, operating 14 coal-fired power stations primarily clustered in the Mpumalanga province), and a lack of progress in adding new generation capacity to the national grid will most likely ensure the continuation of the country's energy crises in the foreseeable future [46]. ...
... Insufficient energy availability can also lead to political instability, disruption in the quality of life, damage to the environment, and declining livelihoods [46]. The lack of access to reliable power generation sources has been identified by the South African government as one of the key barriers to economic growth [45]. Andresen et al. [66] estimated the total effect of power outages on economic growth in SSA over the period 1995-2007. ...
This paper examines patterns and drivers of energy choices for cooking and lighting in South Africa using the Statistics South Africa Census data at the district municipality (districts) level. Employing spatial and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis, the findings show that electricity is the main source of energy for cooking across South Africa. However, there is a large swathe of the country covering districts such as Vhembe and Mopani in Limpopo, eastern Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, and northern Eastern Cape provinces where wood is the predominantly used energy type for cooking. There is almost uniform use of gas for cooking across the country. Electricity is the main energy source for lighting in South Africa. It is followed by candles, likely explained by loadshedding, and, surprisingly, solar energy a distant third. In terms of drivers, dwelling types play a statistically significant role in what energy type to use for cooking and lighting, albeit differently. In terms of lighting, formal dwelling is positively related to the choice of electricity and informal dwelling is related to the choice of electricity (negatively) and candles (positively) for lighting. The level of higher education, household size, and the dependency ratio have varied statistically significant roles in the choice of either energy type for cooking or lighting by formal, informal, and traditional dwellers. Relevant policy prescriptions that are needed to engender the country towards sustainable energy use, diversification of energy types from electricity produced from fossil fuels to other renewable energy sources such as solar, and reduction in over-dependency on the biomass energy sources such as paraffin and wood, especially in rural and poor districts, are proposed.
... Electricity helps with economic development, so there is a high need for electricity as a source of energy across the globe [1]. Because fossil fuels are steadily depleting and spewing hazardous chemicals into the atmosphere, the world's reliance on them for this reason is problematic [2]. ...
700keV Au ions beam effect on the structural, optical and photovoltaic properties of MAPbI 3 solar cells, Ceramics International (2022), doi: https:// Abstract Organic-inorganic halide perovskites with enhanced energy orientation in optoelectronic devices will also have a huge impact on solar cell performance because of their low manufacturing cost and long lifetime. The pure methylammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3PbI3 or MAPbI3) films are coated on FTO-glass substrates by sol-gel spin coating technique. Gold (Au) ions with fluence rates of 2x10 14 and 4x10 14 ions/cm 2 are implanted on these films to enhance their structural, morphological and photovoltaic performance. The cubic crystal structure is present in all of the films. The grain size of the film implanted with 2x10 14 ions/cm 2 is large. According to AFM and FESEM images, the grains in the pure material are tightly packed and connected to one another with distinct grain boundaries, but when Au ions are implanted, the size of the grains increases. The optical characteristics like dielectric constant, bandgap, refractive index, and extinction coefficients are measured using the UV-Vis spectrometry technique. All films have J o u r n a l P r e-p r o o f 2 direct band gap and the films irradiated with 2x10 14 ions/cm 2 has low band gap energy (1.52 eV). The solar cells of these films are manufactured. Each cell performs well overall. The Mott Schottky analysis, charge transfer resistance, and space charge limited current calculations all offer strong support for the excellent efficiencies of such films. The cell fabricated with 2x10 14 ions/cm 2 implanted Au ions has large a short-circuit current density of 10.57 mA/cm 2 , a Fill-Factor of 0.82, open circuit voltage of 1.03 V, and an efficiency of 8.94%.
... Supporting this synopsis, Lamb and Minx [47] categorise South Africa as a 'coal-dependent development' country, 15 facing a range of feasibility constraints: high coal share, high CO 2 emissions, oil and gas rents, inadequate climate legislation, fossil fuel subsidies, corruption, insufficient democratisation, and lack of climate awareness. Other authors [63,83] have highlighted similar factors in selecting South Africa as a key case study for just transition scholarship, while the country's underlying energy challenges are well documented in the literature [84,85]. ...
The feasibility of South Africa's just energy transition, as dictated by the speed of phasing out coal and scaling up renewables, will rest on a range of techno-economic, socio-political, and socio-technical factors. Interactions between these dimensions of the transition carry significant implications for energy justice. In response, this paper proposes the Just Transition Feasibility Framework (JTFF) to better evaluate how feasibility constraints may impact South Africa's energy transition ambitions, and its more recent commitments to energy justice. Drawing on qualitative findings from interviews with South African energy experts, the study provides critical insights on the national- and community-scale implications of current energy policies. The analysis highlights socio-political constraints related to the Renewable Independent Power Producer Programme (REI4P) which aggravate energy vulnerabilities and misrecognition of places. In addition to strategically tackling a range of techno-economic and socio-technical constraints which are seen to exacerbate distributive injustice, the South African government should extend the 50 km radius scheme of the REI4P to a wider and more inclusive regional basis. Foremost, policy interventions must seek to realign South Africa's Minerals Energy Complex towards a just transition pathway committed to renewable electrification, community empowerment, and sustainable socio-economic structures.
... Electricity helps with economic development, so there is a high need for electricity as a source of energy across the globe [1]. Because fossil fuels are steadily depleting and spewing hazardous chemicals into the atmosphere, the world's reliance on them for this reason is problematic [2]. ...
Organic-inorganic halide perovskites with enhanced energy orientation in optoelectronic devices will also have a huge impact on solar cell performance because of their low manufacturing cost and long lifetime. The pure methylammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3PbI3 or MAPbI3) films are coated on FTO-glass substrates by sol-gel spin coating technique. Gold (Au) ions with fluence rates of 2x10¹⁴ and 4x10¹⁴ ions/cm² are implanted on these films to enhance their structural, morphological and photovoltaic performance. The cubic crystal structure is present in all of the films. The grain size of the film implanted with 2x10¹⁴ ions/cm² is large. According to AFM and FESEM images, the grains in the pure material are tightly packed and connected to one another with distinct grain boundaries, but when Au ions are implanted, the size of the grains increases. The optical characteristics like dielectric constant, bandgap, refractive index, and extinction coefficients are measured using the UV–Vis spectrometry technique. All films have direct band gap and the films irradiated with 2x10¹⁴ ions/cm² has low band gap energy (1.52 eV). The solar cells of these films are manufactured. Each cell performs well overall. The Mott Schottky analysis, charge transfer resistance, and space charge limited current calculations all offer strong support for the excellent efficiencies of such films. The cell fabricated with 2x10¹⁴ ions/cm² implanted Au ions has large a short-circuit current density of 10.57 mA/cm², a Fill-Factor of 0.82, open circuit voltage of 1.03 V, and an efficiency of 8.94%.
... The country has experienced numerous blackouts as a result of severe energy shortages, which not only affect the general running of households, but also greatly disrupts the manufacturing and mining industries, hence stressing the country's economy. 2 It is not only the continuous excessive demand of energy and the indisputable reality that fossil fuels will eventually diminish, but also the concern of environmental threats that have triggered the urgency to explore clean, sustainable, economical, effective and efficient energy technologies. 3 The extravagant use of conventionally derived energy sources and an increase in carbon dioxide and other greenhouses gases, which result in detrimental environmental pollution, are inseparable. ...
This study followed a quantitative approach, with the purpose of converting municipal sewage to valuable bio‐oils. The sewage sludge was subjected to hydrothermal liquefaction in 60 mL stainless steel batch reactors, where the effects of temperature, solvent composition and solvent content were investigated, and all the other process parameters were maintained at constant values. Temperatures were explored between 220 and 370°C. The two solvents investigated were de‐ionized water (H2O) and ethanol (E) which were applied in the following compositions: 1:0, 1:1 and 0:1 (H2O:E). The five solvent contents (moisture contents) investigated were 75, 80, 85, 90 and 95 wt%. The temperature of 310°C emerged categorically as the optimal temperature across the various solvent contents. The best yield was achieved when H2O/E (1:1) performed as a co‐solvent at 85% solvent content and 310°C, which amounted to 40.69 wt%. Bio‐oils derived by the use of pure H2O solvent were overall the least effective in yielding high bio‐oil quantities. The lowest bio‐oil yield obtained was 6.42 wt% where pure H2O was the solvent at extreme conditions of 370°C and 95% solvent content. The order of efficiency of solvent content was as follows: 85% > 80% > 75% > 90% > 95%. Among the six temperatures investigated, the intermediate temperature, 310°C, gave the highest conversions. The highest conversion across all of the runs was 85.65% at 310°C with 90% solvent content using the co‐solvent H2O/E. The order of superiority of solvent was H2O/E > pure ethanol > pure water. © 2022 The Authors. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining published by Society of Industrial Chemistry and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
... Rolling blackouts hit the most, residential sector, or poorer neighborhoods than the industrial sector due to both economic and political factors [6,7]. Studies investigating blackouts are not new. ...
Sub-Saharan emerging countries experience electrical shortages resulting in power rationing, which ends up hampering economic activities. This paper proposes an approach for very short-term blackout forecast in grid-tied PV systems operating in low reliability weak electric grids of emerging countries. A pilot project was implemented in Arusha-Tanzania; it mainly comprised of a PV-inverter and a lead-acid battery bank connected to the local electricity utility company, Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO). A very short-term power outage prediction model framework based on a hybrid random forest (RF) algorithm was developed using open-source Python machine learning libraries and using a dataset generated from the pilot project’s experimental microgrid. Input data sampled at a 15-minute interval included day of the month, weekday, hour, supply voltage, utility line frequency, and previous days’ blackout profiles. The model was composed of an adaptive similar day (ASD) module that predicts 15 minutes ahead from a sliding window lookup table spanning 2 weeks prior to the prediction target day, after which ASD prediction was fused with RF prediction, giving a final optimised RF-ASD blackout prediction model. Furthermore, the efficacy analysis of the short-term blackout prediction of the formulated RF, ASD, and RF-ASD regression and classification algorithms was compared. Considering the stochastic nature of blackouts, their performance was found to be fair in short-term blackout predictions of the test site’s weak grid using limited input data from the point of coupling of the user. The models developed were only able to predict blackouts if they occurred frequently and contiguously, but they performed poorly if they were sparse or dispersed.
... The world is in great demand for energy in the form of electricity, as electricity contributes to economic growth [1]. The world's dependence on burning fossil fuel for this purpose is consequential, as fossil fuels are slowly becoming depleted and emit harmful toxins into the atmosphere [2,3]. ...
... t= r A +r X √2×(r B −r X ) (1) where rA, rB, and rX represent the ionic radii for the organic cation A, inorganic cation B, and the halide anion X, respectively, from the ABX3 perovskite crystal structure [31]. ...
This review provides detailed information on perovskite solar cell device background and monitors stepwise scientific efforts applied to improve device performance with time. The work reviews previous studies and the latest developments in the perovskite crystal structure, electronic structure, device architecture, fabrication methods, and challenges. Advantages, such as easy bandgap tunability, low charge recombination rates, and low fabrication cost, are among the topics discussed. Some of the most important elements highlighted in this review are concerns regarding commercialization and prototyping. Perovskite solar cells are generally still lab-based devices suffering from drawbacks such as device intrinsic and extrinsic instabilities and rising environmental concerns due to the use of the toxic inorganic lead (Pb) element in the perovskite (ABX3) light-active material. Some interesting recommendations and possible future perspectives are well articulated.
... Apart from South Africa, which now appears as the "Power House" (...), Africa is today the continent least supplied with electric power [1]. However, more than 14% of the world's population resides in Africa with an access to electricity limited to 35% [2]. By 2050, the African population would be around 1.9 billion, which would imply an increase in already unsatisfactory energy demand. ...
Hydrogen as an energy vector could be one of the solutions to the crucial energy crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. A technological review is done in this paper as a first attempt to foster research and development on the subject. It shows the hydrogen technology disadvantages and difficulties regarding its usage in Africa, and explores ways to better tackle them. Concepts are also discussed by showing the benefits of hydrogen introduction in sub-Saharan African countries on their economy through the increase of their electrification coverage and the reduction of electricity shortages witnessed in these countries. Ideas of systems hybridization including hydrogen fuel cells are presented, discussed and adapted to the sub-Saharan context. Methods of overcoming possible risks, technologies that could be adopted now and on-going research on the subject are finally performed.
... On one side, SA has imposed tax, and on the other side, some allowances are also given, as shown in Table 13, to encourage the reduction in carbon emission and to promote participation in this process. The allowances have been divided into different categories to attain the maximum benefit (Zhidong et al., 2021;Pollet et al., 2015). ...
The availability of cost-effective and environmentally friendly electricity to the entire population is a prime concern of the South African government. It has brought attention to microgrid projects, especially when rural population is considered properly. To address the energy needs of any country, the focus line should be the cost and availability of local resources. Due to the abundance of coal reserves and lack of alternative resources, coal dependence cannot be overlooked in the near future. This paper focuses not only on microgrid needs in South Africa but also on the possible use of hydrogen extracted from coal as a fuel in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) in microgrids. The complete assembly of PEMFC and its use in the microgrid are discussed. To make the H 2 extraction process eco-friendly and hence worth considering, Carbon capture and sequestration process is discoursed. Furthermore, cost benefit analysis and the long term benefit of the use of PEMFC in microgrids with coal-based hydrogen production are presented in this research.
... Another study conducted in Phoenix Hammond et al. [14] shows that the cleanliness of a PV module can become economically attractive, that it can recover 1% of its power when it rains, and that dirt deposition effects are greater when the angle of radiation incidence increases. ...
This study concerns the first phase of the project to install solar panels in Algeria. The sites enjoy one of the most sunshine in the world, the Saharan region must be the spearhead in the development of energy which, moreover, with an abundant potential still under-exploited, photovoltaics constitute a formidable opportunity for the economic development of the region. In the perspective of a transition to "green energy" and in order to promote the emergence of solar energy in Algeria, a reflection on the development strategies of this energy must be combined with the strong challenges of the region, namely, the preservation of biodiversity, ecological continuities, as well as landscapes, the maintenance of agricultural land and forest areas and the fight against climate change. In this context, the contribution envisaged with this work is to contribute to the identification of a set of sites with high solar potential that can accommodate solar power plants.
