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... the sectors of potential interest for the study were chosen: machines form building sites, gardening, machines for the street cleaning, agricultural machines, machines for earth- moving, machines for agricultural greenhouses, snow machines. The study was related to motorizations, typically medium/low power, where it’s possible the substitution of the actual supply systems with innovative battery systems. High power motorizations or duty cycles which require hybrid propulsion or too much expensive applications (due to the big number of batteries) were excluded. By the data of sales of off-road vehicles in Italy in 2009 and 2010 (Figure 1 and Figure 2), on kind courtesy of manufacturers’ associations or the companies working in this field, it was calculated the potential sales volume of off-road vehicles at 2020 in the different sectors, and finally the potential of off-road electric vehicles at 2020, with the hypothesis that the production of electric vehicles is only 10% of the ...
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... A recent study has underlined the importance of a standard battery module in order to achieve a massive electrification of off-road vehicles [6]. According to the study, it is possible to use a standard module of 4 series-connected lithium-ironphosphate (LFP) cells in order to build up the battery of many types of off-road vehicles. ...
Large-format Lithium-ion battery packs consist of the series and parallel connection of elemental cells, usually assembled into modules. The required voltage and capacity of the battery pack can be reached by various configurations of the elemental cells or modules. It is thus worth investigating if different configurations lead to different performance of the battery pack in presence of a mismatch in the cell characteristics. A simulation tool is developed in this work and applied to a battery pack consisting of standard 12 V modules connected with various serial/parallel topologies. The results show that battery configurations with modules directly connected in parallel and then assembled in series are more robust against variation of the cell capacity through the battery. Moreover, given the cells and the battery configuration, we show that changing the position of the cells has a significant impact on the usable capacity of the battery.
... An internal combustion engine commonly powers off-road vehicles. The replacement or the combination of this engine with an electric motor might be a remarkable step toward energy sustainability by reducing CO 2 emissions and by improving energy utilization efficiency [1], [2]. ...
... A recent study on the Italian market for mobile work machines gives a good idea of the relevance of these kinds of vehicles and the impact of their electrification [2]. Figure 1 shows the forecasted sales of electric off-road vehicles, grouped by function and expressed in terms of onboard battery energy. ...
... The standard battery module consists of 4 series-connected lithium-ion cells (LiFePO 4 units), according to the study in [2]. Here, the focus is on the design of the relevant battery management system (BMS). ...
This paper describes the design of the traction battery for the new electric Formula SAE vehicle of the University of Pisa. A model based design methodology extended to the mechanical, electrical and thermal domains was applied to find the best trade-off between the battery weight and the maximum power available at the wheel. The designed battery configuration was validated by means of electrical and thermal simulations.
This paper presents a novel charge equalization technique seamlessly integrated into a modular Battery Management System (BMS) for lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. The charge equalizer is a crucial element for an effective use of a Li-ion battery consisting of many series-connected cells. We describe a fully distributed charge equalizer based on a circular balancing bus, which outperforms other recently published approaches. Its safety requirements have formally been verified using a model checker, showing that formal methods and, in particular, the Symbolic Analysis Laboratory environment, can be effective to verify the safety requirements of a BMS.
This paper describes the design of a modular battery management system for electric off-road vehicles, where lithiumion batteries are expected to be widely used. A massive electrification of off-road vehicles can be enabled by the availability of a standard battery module, provided with an effective management unit. The design and some preliminary experimental results of the module management unit are discussed in this paper. The unit contains a high current active equalizer that enables the dynamic charge equalization among cells and maximizes the usable capacity of the battery.
