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Pooling the resources and perspectives of two technical communication instructors—one from the United States and the other from China—we compare the cultural values that have shaped the development of technical communication in the U.S. versus China and that shape the way in which documents are viewed, created, and used in China versus in the Unite...
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Context 1
... only do American students learn deductive order for the organization of essays in their college composition classes, but those American students who take journalism courses learn its elaboration in the 5Ws and H (who, what, when, where, why, and how) as the basis for covering the essential points of a news story. When diagrammed, this deductive organizational pattern is an inverted pyramid (see Figure 3), with the most important information pre- sented first (the broadest part of the pyramid), narrowing down in decreasing order of importance to the smallest part or least essential information last. ...
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Citations
... information in communication [42][43][44][45]. This means that a detailed analysis is presented before the main point or conclusion. ...
... This means that a detailed analysis is presented before the main point or conclusion. On the other hand, American culture tends to prefer a deductive sequencing, where the main point or conclusion is stated first, followed by supporting arguments or analysis [42][43][44][45]. The sequence of PAE closely resembles an inductive order, whereas the sequence of APE is analogous to that of a deductive order. ...
... SC is studied in terms of individual aspects or individual means by which safety is communicated. Aspects include legal conformity of SC (Helyar, 1992;Smith, 1990;Todd, 2014), requirements for the wording of instructions (Cornelissen et al., 2014;Elling, 1997;Lipus, 2006), and differences between target groups that are due to differing levels of expertise (Dombrowski, 2011;Hirst, 2016Hirst, , 2020 or cultural backgrounds (Barnum & Huilin, 2006;Batova, 2010;Evia & Patriarca, 2012;Sauer, 1996). Means include safety labels (Kemnitz, 1991;Smith, 1990), flyers (Batova, 2010;Karreman et al., 2014), and manuals (Barnum & Huilin, 2006;Elling, 1997;Tebeaux, 2010). ...
... Aspects include legal conformity of SC (Helyar, 1992;Smith, 1990;Todd, 2014), requirements for the wording of instructions (Cornelissen et al., 2014;Elling, 1997;Lipus, 2006), and differences between target groups that are due to differing levels of expertise (Dombrowski, 2011;Hirst, 2016Hirst, , 2020 or cultural backgrounds (Barnum & Huilin, 2006;Batova, 2010;Evia & Patriarca, 2012;Sauer, 1996). Means include safety labels (Kemnitz, 1991;Smith, 1990), flyers (Batova, 2010;Karreman et al., 2014), and manuals (Barnum & Huilin, 2006;Elling, 1997;Tebeaux, 2010). Despite its significance and its positive influence on occupational safety (Cornelissen, 2019;Hofmann & Morgeson, 1999;Kines et al., 2010;Nordl€ of et al., 2015), the concept of SC lacks a clear understanding in terms of how it is put into practice in industrial contexts and what challenges arise in this regard (Cornelissen, 2019). ...
Work in industrial contexts is confronted with various risks, which are further amplified by the trend toward Industry 4.0. Approaches are needed to examine safety communication (SC) in such changing environments. Existing studies focus on individual SC means and quantitative evaluation measures. This article proposes a qualitative approach for analyzing SC with which a process chain in a metal-working company is investigated. The results reveal that SC is implemented as a complex system of communicative means. Weaknesses in this system entail several problems at the level of both workplaces and process chains. Due to a lack of digitalization, SC does not meet the requirements of Industry 4.0. Several task areas for communication professionals are identified in optimizing SC. These include content preparation for existing SC means according to work contexts and related tasks, creating digital SC content, and increasing the companies’ resilience to novel risks.
... Using variations of content analysis, various researchers tried to make sense of differences in document design practices (Barnum & Li, 2006;Ding, 2003;Dragga, 1999; J. Wang, 2007; Q. Wang, 2000; Y. Wang, & Wang, 2009;Yu, 2009). The results of these studies complement each other and sometimes point in different directions, which might be attributed to their small-scale data collection, variety of documents used, and rather informal analysis approach (without explicit coding schemes and assessments of inter-coder reliability). ...
... Earlier content analytic studies into cultural differences in technical communication therefore focused strongly on differences in structure between Western countries and China (Barnum & Li, 2006;Ding, 2003;Dragga, 1999;J. Wang, 2007;Q. ...
... Our research contributes to the body of knowledge regarding cross-cultural and intercultural technical communication. The main issue at stake here is whether the insights that have been developed in content analytic research about cultural differences in the structuring of user manuals (Barnum & Li, 2006;Ding, 2003;Dragga, 1999;Li et al., 2020;J. Wang, 2007;Q. ...
PURPOSE: Although various researchers have paid attention to differences in the way Chinese and Western documents are structured, only few have investigated how Chinese and Western users differ in their way of using instructions. This study experimentally investigates the effects Chinese and Western manual structures have on Chinese and Western users, in terms of task performance, user satisfaction, and information selection. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
METHOD: A 3x2 randomized experiment (N = 127) was conducted, with participants’ cultural background (Chinese living in China, Chinese living in the Netherlands, and Westerners) and manual structure (Chinese versus Western) as independent variables and task performance, user satisfaction, and information selection as dependent variables. Supported by a manual, participants performed tasks with Excel and afterwards filled out a satisfaction questionnaire. To investigate information selection, eye-tracking data were collected. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
RESULTS: Regarding task performance and user satisfaction, no significant main and interaction effects were found. Regarding information selection, our research confirmed some of the hypothesized differences between Chinese and Western users: Chinese users pay less attention to structuring elements (table of contents and headings) and more attention to visuals. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that cultural adaptations of the structure of manuals do not really matter: Chinese and Western users perform equally well and have similar satisfaction scores with Western and Chinese manual structures. Paradoxically, the differences found in users’ information selection behaviors provided some support for the differences in document design practices. However, users of both cultures appear to be sufficiently flexible in using instructions that are not culturally adapted. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
KEYWORDS: cross-cultural communication; cultural differences; user instructions; information selection; user satisfaction
... In the Western world, however, the prevalent text structure is deductive. That is, the main idea is stated at the beginning of a text followed by the supporting details (Barnum & Li, 2006;Ding, 2006). And the results of a recent interview study of 20 Chinese technical communicators supported the findings of these previous studies (Q. ...
... But Western writers are inclined to organize their texts deductively so that their readers can immediately identify the main idea of the text. This explanation was adopted by other researchers as well (Barnum & Li, 2006;Zhu & St.Amant, 2007). ...
This study examines the effects of inductively versus deductively organized product descriptions on Chinese and Western readers. It uses a 2 × 3 experimental design with text structure (inductive versus deductive) and cultural background (Chinese living in China, Chinese living in the Netherlands, and Westerners) as independent variables and recall, reading time, and readers’ opinions as dependent variables. Participants read a product description that explained two refrigerator types and then recommended which one to purchase. The results showed that Chinese readers rated readability and persuasiveness higher when the text was structured inductively whereas Western readers rated these aspects equally high for the inductively and deductively structured text. The results suggest that culturally preferred organizing principles do not affect readers’ ability to read and understand texts but that these principles might affect their opinions about the texts.
... Research on China and Chinese TC that reflects the practitioner and academic foci of TC research is firmly established. For example, Ding [55] conducted a comparative analysis of Chinese and American written instructions, whereas Barnum and Huilin [56] explain through comparison of documents that communication is composed differently in the two countries as a result of cultural differences. ...
Background: Technical communication, business communication, and professional communication are potentially overlapping disciplines with open disciplinary questions. A comparative topical analysis of research topics can identify similarities and differences between them, addressing intellectual and physical concerns for each.
Literature review: Recent topical analyses have been done for technical communication. Historical topical analyses have been done for business communication. Few professional communication topical analyses exist. Some studies were done 15 or more years ago, and one related comparative study exists.
Research questions:
1. What research topics are unique to each of the disciplines of technical communication, business communication, and professional communication in a corpus of research abstracts spanning 1963–2017? 2. What topics are shared among the disciplines of technical communication, business communication, and professional communication in a corpus of research abstracts spanning 1963–2017?
Research methodology:
I used collocation analysis on the target phrases technical communication, business communication, and professional communication from a 4822-abstract corpus. I compared words collocated with target phrases to find words unique to a single term, those shared with two terms, or those shared with all three terms.
Results/discussion:
Findings identified science communication as a technical communication topic; other findings corroborated previous research. Business communication findings corroborated previous research and identified an emphasis on global communication. Findings show professional communication as a rhetorically flexible term that creates a space for emerging concepts and expands disciplinary boundaries. The three shared communication, pedagogy, international, and disciplinary concerns.
Conclusions:
The disciplines feature some overlap but maintain distinct research foci. Professional communication is a distinctive discipline that assists technical communication and business communication by incubation of emerging concepts.
... In the same vein, another study found that introductions and conclusions differ between American and Chinese research reports [14]. More than in American reports, Chinese introductions try to make a good impression on the reader, and Chinese conclusions try to save the face of readers by providing cautious suggestions rather than direct recommendations [14], [30]. ...
... In the same vein, another study found that introductions and conclusions differ between American and Chinese research reports [14]. More than in American reports, Chinese introductions try to make a good impression on the reader, and Chinese conclusions try to save the face of readers by providing cautious suggestions rather than direct recommendations [14], [30]. These tendencies all would lead to documents that are-in Western eyes-less functional. ...
... Another difference involves the amount of technical information in manuals. Several studies suggest that Chinese manuals provide more technical information [14], [29], [31], [32], including wiring diagrams [31] and technical terminology [14]. They seem to address a mixed user group of technical professionals and end users, whereas Western manuals typically focus on end users only. ...
Research problem: Cultural differences may be increasingly important in technical communication. Research is needed to investigate differences in document design practices and user preferences. This study examines cultural differences between Chinese and Western manuals for household appliances. Literature review: Earlier studies identified a wide range of possible differences between Chinese and Western documents, but the findings are not consistent and do not provide more generic perspectives on cultural differences. Possible reasons are the diversity of the documents used, the rather informal research designs, and relatively small sample sizes. Research question: To what extent and how do Chinese and Western manuals for household appliances differ from each other in terms of content, structure, and use of visuals? Methodology: To overcome these shortcomings, a quantitative content analysis was conducted, comparing 50 Chinese manuals and 50 Western manuals for household appliances. The coding scheme was based on earlier research findings and focused on content, structure, and the use of visuals. Results and conclusions: The results show that the content of Chinese manuals is less strictly confined to the function of user support than that of Western manuals. Compared to Western manuals, the structure of Chinese manuals appears to be fuzzier and less rigid. Regarding visuals, Chinese manuals contain more non-instrumental, entertaining illustrations than Western manuals. Underlying these differences is a more general distinction between highly instrumental Western manuals and more flexible Chinese manuals. These differences seem to point to two cultural dimensions: holistic versus analytic thinking and analog versus digital cultures.
... Most of our knowledge on cultural differences between Chinese and Western technical communication is based on content-analytic research, which typically involves a comparison of a corpus of Chinese and Western documents. The most comprehensive of these content analyses was conducted by Li et al. (in press), who systematically compared 50 Chinese and 50 Western manuals for household appliances, using a coding scheme based on all earlier content-analytic studies (Barnum & Li, 2006;Carroll & Delin, 1998;Fukuoka, Kojima, & Spyridakis, 1999;Q. Wang, 2000;Y. ...
... And in line with H3, we found that Western users appreciate strictly instrumental pictures more than Chinese users. These findings suggest that cross-cultural document design practices regarding the selection of visuals (Barnum & Li, 2006. Fukuoka et al., 1999Li et al., in press;Q. ...
... Our study is the first quantitative user study to confirm the existence of cultural differences in technical communication. The body of knowledge on intercultural and cross-cultural technical communication is to a large extent based on formal or less formal content analyses comparing document design practices as manifested in user instructions (e.g., Barnum & Li, 2006;Carroll & Delin, 1998;Fukuoka et al., 1999;Li et al., in press;Q. Wang, 2000;Y. ...
Research shows that Western and Chinese user instructions use visuals differently. Two basic tendencies may be discerned: Chinese manuals place more emphasis on visuals and their selection of visuals is less strictly confined to usability related functionality. This study investigates whether such cultural differences correspond to user preferences. Three hypotheses were tested: (a) Chinese users value pictures more than Western users; (b) Chinese users appreciate diverting, cartoon-like pictures more than Western users; and (c) Western users appreciate strictly instrumental pictures more than Chinese users. To test these hypotheses, a quasi-experiment (N = 158) was conducted with cultural background as independent variable and appreciation for pictures as dependent variable. All participants rated 15 pictures, which were presented in the context of user instructions. All three hypotheses were confirmed. Cultural differences regarding the use of visuals should therefore be taken into account when localizing Western manuals for the Chinese market, or vice versa.
... Many articles have been published about differences between communication in China and in the Western world; sometimes comparing these two cultures, sometimes comparing specific groups within these cultures. Based on the results of these studies, it is concluded that literally translating functional documents, such as user instructions, from one language into another does not result in documents that are optimally usable [1,2,3]. These documents need to be localized, adjusted to the target group's culture. ...
... The opinions of Chinese and Western target groups seem to differ on the acceptability and usability of documents as well [6], and even on their attitudes towards what is ethical or legal [4]. In addition, studies also reveal different design strategies between Chinese and Western manuals [1,7]. ...
... Study results with regard to the structure of Chinese and Western documents are not conclusive. Some researchers concluded that in Chinese documents less structure markers such as headings and lists are used, because Chinese readers try to connect everything together [1]. However, other study results indicated that similar organizational strategies are applied in Chinese and Western documents [8]. ...
... In Chinese manuals, the connection between visuals and the accompanying text is less clear through positioning or labeling than in Western manuals [22], [27]- [29]. This probably stems from the fact that users are expected to comprehend the accompanying text with their background knowledge in a high context culture with many common senses shared while the relationship should be specified in a low context culture [29], [27]. ...
... In Chinese manuals, the connection between visuals and the accompanying text is less clear through positioning or labeling than in Western manuals [22], [27]- [29]. This probably stems from the fact that users are expected to comprehend the accompanying text with their background knowledge in a high context culture with many common senses shared while the relationship should be specified in a low context culture [29], [27]. ...
... So, this type of manual represents the popular design style in society. Secondly, previous studies suggested cultural differences in household appliance manuals [20], [25], [27]- [29], [38]- [40]. Finally, the industries of household appliances are developing very fast in both Chinese and Western countries, which enhances comparability. ...
In today’s global world, understanding local user preferences becomes an increasingly essential skill, especially for technical communicators who design products for people in other cultures. This study attempts to analyze and compare visuals in Chinese and Western manuals because visuals play an essential role in manuals. Based on a systematically designed coding scheme, we analyzed 50 Western and 50 Chinese household product manuals (1895 pages in total) designed in their own cultures and published after 2007. Results show many differences between Chinese and Western manuals with regard to visuals. All differences seem to point in the same direction; Chinese visuals appear to have an entertaining function while Western visuals are not meant to entertain the readers but have an informative or instructive function. This study aims to enhance the mutual understanding of information designers in cross-cultural manual design.
... Research shows that Chinese and Western designers create user instructions that differ in style (eg, Barnum & Li, 2006;Wang & Wang, 2009;Zhu & St. Amant, 2007). However, this does not mean that appraisals and effects of these instructions differ. ...
The effectiveness of demonstration‐based training (DBT) videos for software training has been investigated for a Western audience. These studies have generally found that the demonstration videos significantly enhanced self‐efficacy and task performance, but also that there was a gap between task practice and learning with the latter lagging behind. The present study investigated the effectiveness of DBT‐videos for software training of Chinese students. The control condition presented demonstrations only. In the experimental condition demonstrations were preceded with advance organizers that aimed to enhance learning. The 61 participants (mean age 11.8 years) came from a middle school in China. Data analyses revealed that self‐efficacy significantly improved in both conditions. Task performance success also increased significantly over time. The familiar gap between task practice and learning was found between task practice and outcomes on an immediate post‐test. However, on the delayed post‐test this difference had disappeared. An effect of the advance organizer was found for accuracy of the self‐efficacy appraisals, and for gain scores from pretest to delayed post‐test. It is concluded that DBT‐based demonstration videos are moderately effective for software training of Chinese students, and that it can be beneficial to precede these with advance organizers.
