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Intensity map for the 9.0 Mw event of March 11, 2011 (Data from JMA, map by authors). The Japanese intensity scale is used here, so this does not correspond to EMS or Mercalli intensities but instead it reflects measured seismic acceleration distribution.
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The earthquake of March 11 of magnitude 9 offshore Tohoku, Japan, was followed by a tsunami wave with particularly destructive impact, over a coastal area extending approx. 850 km along the Pacific Coast of Honshu Island. First arrival times and measurements and maximum height were recorded by the Japanese monitoring system (wherever there was no f...
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Citations
... Despite academic impetus, the 2011-Tohoku tsunami causing severe damage to the affected coastal region (Fujji et al. 2011) found the academic community wanting in an effort to characterize unique predicted behavior. The coastal morphology, the orientation of the coast, the width of the continental shelf, and distance from the source played a major role in the severity of the tsunami disaster (Lekkas et al. 2011). The seismically active Andaman Nicobar region experienced great recurrent earthquakes in 1797, 1833, and 1861, in addition to the Mw8.6-Nias (March 28, 2005) and Mw8.4-Bengkulu (September 12, 2007) earthquakes, which also produced tsunamis ). ...
The detailed inundation mapping and vulnerability assessment is an essential component of risk reduction and rehabilitation planning in tsunami-prone regions. Integrated spatial analyses through Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Fuzzy logic operation, mainly Fuzzy PRODUCT and Fuzzy GAMMA (0.9), are used to assess tsunami vulnerability and inundation mapping in the Andaman region, which experienced the 2004-Great Indian Ocean Tsunami. The thematic layers of elevation, slope, shoreline distance, and vegetation density are created using SRTM DEM and Landsat-8 OLI (~ 30 m spatial resolution). The tsunami wave heights are generated from TUNAMI-N2 Model using GEBCO bathymetry data. AHP evaluation process is applied to assign weights to the thematic layers, which are integrated using the weighted sum method. The input weight score of each thematic layer is transformed into a 0 to 1 scale using Fuzzy membership function to derive Fuzzy PRODUCT and Fuzzy GAMMA tsunami vulnerability classes, namely very low, low, medium, high, and very high, depending on correlation with tsunami run-up map. The weighted sum, Fuzzy PRODUCT, and Fuzzy GAMMA methods estimate ~ 1227 (26%), 225 (5%), and 844.33 (18%) km2 areas as very high vulnerability. The Fuzzy GAMMA method closely compares with the observed-modeled inundation of ~ 14% in the Andaman region. The vulnerability is correlated with the inundation pattern and LULC changes to understand the change in vulnerability from 2004 to 2021. The results are discussed for the robustness of the observation and technique that can be used for tsunami disaster management and land-use planning.
... The run-up of tsunamis on vertical cliffs is several times higher than that occurring on low coastal areas [43]. The run-up is also enhanced due to several factors [44]: (1) by the distance from the tsunami generation area (only 300 km, in our case), (2) the narrowness of the continental shelf (as in Ibiza and Formentera), (3) the fact that the tsunami propagation vector is almost perpendicular to the main shoreline direction, and (4) land morphology, characterized by vertical cliffs with entrances (calas). ...
Large boulders have been found in marine cliffs from 7 study sites on Ibiza and Formentera Islands (Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean). These large boulders of up to 43 t are located on platforms that form the rocky coastline of Ibiza and Formentera, several tens of meters from the edge of the cliff, up to 11 m above sea level and several kilometers away from any inland escarpment. Despite than storm wave height and energy are higher from the northern direction, the largest boulders are located in the southern part of the islands. The boulders are located in the places where numerical models of tsunami simulation from submarine earthquakes on the North African coast predict tsunami impact on these two islands. According to radiocarbon data and rate of growth of dissolution pans, the ages of the boulders range between 1750 AD and 1870 AD. Documentary sources also confirm a huge tsunami affecting the SE coast of Majorca (the largest Balearic Island) in 1756. The distribution of the boulders sites along the islands, the direction of imbrication and the run-up necessary for their placement suggest that they were transported from northern African tsunami waves that hit the coastline of Ibiza and Formentera Islands.
... Many recent disasters have contributed to scientific and public understanding of multi-process linkages. For example, the 2011 M9.0 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami propagated and compounded the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear reactors, causing broad economic impacts that included hundreds of billions of USD in direct losses and billions (USD) more in losses in supply chain disruptions and continuing agricultural losses (Lekkas et al., 2011;Kazama and Noda, 2012;IAEA, 2015). Complex process cause-and-effect webs are documented within mountain areas, such as the Attabad landslide and damming of the Hunza River in northern Pakistan (Kargel et al., 2010). ...
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... the Great East Japan Earthquake (Tohoku earthquake) that happened on March 11, 2011. It measured a magnitude 9.0 with powerful tsunami waves that reached heights of up to 40.5 m (Lekkas, Andreadakis, Kostaki, & Kapourani, 2011). In its aftermath, the Fukushima area had major infrastructure disruptions, with their nuclear atomic plants having critical crises and with electricity, gas, and water facilities stopping automatically. ...
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... Iceland in April 2010 [1] and the tsunami caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake disaster in the Japanese Tohoku district in March 2011 [2] have caused anxiety regarding their influence on aquatic animals and plants. In relation to this, a major problem is the sediment discharge that accompanies heavy rainfall and causes damage to corals in coral reef regions. ...
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To analyze the concept of risk utilizing Walker and Avant's method of analysis to determine a conceptual definition applicable within nursing and nursing research.
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... Рис. 55. Распространение волны цунами во время Японского землетрясения 11 марта 2011 г. (черными стрелками показан вектор распространения волны, красными и синими овалами -поднятие и опускание океанического дна) [Lekkas et al., 2011]. «надвиг» и «поддвиг», особенно в зарубежной литературе, зачастую понимают как синонимы, о чем более подробно см. ...
An earthquake source is characterized by two nodal planes oriented parallel to two planes of maximum shear stresses (Fig. 1, left). A rapid displacement of the shear type (in mechanical, rather than in the geological meaning) occurs along one of the planes and causes an earthquake.The concept of plate tectonics with one of its main components, subduction zones, provides, at first sight, the unique opportunity to select one of the two nodal planes – a gently dipping plane which is parallel to the roof of the subducting oceanic plate (Fig. 1, bottom right). The other nodal plane that is steeply dipping in the opposite direction (Fig. 1, top right) seems ‘unpromising’, considering the aspect of seismicity, for two reasons. First, displacement along this plate is contrary to the general direction of oceanic plate subduction. Secondly, such displacement is directed against the direction of gravity, which is energetically disadvantageous.However, it should be taken into account that in the stress field of the subduction zone, as in any stress field, the two above-mentioned maximum shear stresses have equal values. At the same time, it is the sub-vertical displacement that excites rapid uplifting of the seabed which causes a tsunami. Researchers who support the traditional choice of a gently dipping nodal plane have to reckon with it and therefore create complex models, such as the ‘splay fault’ model that seem most successful, though being quite complicated and controversial (Figs. 56 and 57).In our opinion, the geological reality is more adequately refelected by the geological and geophysical model shown in Fig. 1 (right). It is based on the wide range of information and assumes that both nodal planes are equivalent and interchange in generation of strong earthquakes.The aim of this article is to consider this model in terms of tectonophysics. For this purpose, earthquake sources indicated on (Fig. 1, right) are classified as Riedel megashears, R (bottom right) and R' (top right top), which occur in the geodynamic setting of sub-horizontal shearing (in this case, subduction of the oceanic plate) along the sub-horizontal plane (Fig. 3). This situation is one of five elementary geodynamic settings (see Fig. 2). It is similar in everything, except the position of the shearing plane, with the geodynamic setting of horizontal shearing along the vertical plane (Fig. 4). Riedel shears formed in the latter situation were subject to the most detailed studies using purpose-made devices (Fig. 5, and 6). This study gave grounds to conclude that Riedel shears, R are developed much better than shears R'.Our experiments (Fig. 7) confirm the above conclsuion. Moreover, it is revealed that shears R', that develop poorly in samples made of wet clay (Figs. 8, 9, 12, and 13), cannot develop in a granulated medium such as a mixture of sand and solid oil (Fig. 10, 11, and 14) and do not develop in other granulated media (Fig. 17), which are similar to the block structure of the uppermost crust (Fig. 18–20). In such mediums, shears R result from joining of small echeloned tension joints. Such style of shear formation has been explained in various waysare proposed (Fig. 15–16), and the main point of the explanations is joining of small tensile fractures by means of larger shear fractures. However, our experiments with wet clay (Fig. 31–35) show that even artificially created ’Riedel shears’ show nearly a zero extension under loading followed by shearing, which casts doubt on possibile occurence ofshear fractures as such without involvement of smaller tenson joints.While being not satisfied with the results of our experiments, we carried out numerical simulations of the evolution of Riedel shears, R and R' for different values of lithostatic pressure (which is actually impossible in experiments with equivalent materials) and angles of shearing. (See Fig. 41 for real values of lithostatic pressure and tangential stress with reference to depths of tsunamigenic earthquakes). The opinion voiced by several authors was confirmed – the effect of unequal rotation of the shears during the subsequent shearing is highly significant and therefore ‘subversive’ for shears R'. This simulation was carried out under the assumption of emerging of shears without participation of smaller tension joints (although this assumption is not consistent with the results of our experiments, see above) (Fig. 21–30). Numerical simulation was problematic for the case involving tension joints and had to bereplaced by experiments with thephysical modelwhere small tension joints were artificially created and arranged in an echelon pattern along the tracks of future shear fractures, and small joints and tracks were oriented in accordance with the orientation of the vector of principal stresses that occurred in the model made of wet clay due to shearing (Fig. 36–40).The results of both physical and numerical modeling have led to a definite conclusion that Riedel shears R are evidently dominating over shears R' in a variety of conditions (except for the initial stages of shearing in the samples of wet clay, which, by virtue of internal connections between clay particles, gives a less adequate representation of the natural block-type geological medium than granular materials).This conclusion is in contradiction with the well-justified model combining geological and geophysical indicators of the formation of foci of strong tsunamigenic and non-tsunamigenic earthquakes (see Fig. 1) which are identified (see above) as megashears R and R', respectively. This contradiction is eliminated if we take into account the sharp gravitational disbalance of the island arc – trench ‘tectonopair’ created by subduction. This disbalance is expressed in the contrasting relief and in contrasting gravity anomalies in this ‘tektonopair’ (Fig. 43). We assumed that nature cannot be ‘tolerant’ for a long time, and found an opposite natural reaction (mainly in the case of the Tohoku earthquake in Japan on March 11, 2011) – subsidense of the Earth surface segment adjacent to the island arc and uplift of the surface segment adjacent to the trench, accompanied by horizontal movement of the material from the arc towards the trench (Figs. 47–54, and 58). This process has a trend of declining relief contrast between the arc and the trough and inversion of the sign of gravity anomalies (Figs. 44–46). And it is the boundary between these regions of the Earth surface subsidence and uplifting, to which tsunamigenic earthquake are confined at reverse faults of the seabed surface with the raised wall facing the trough (Fig. 42). This means that the tendency to gravitational equilibrium realized the potential of forming megashears R', that develop much worse than shears R (or do not develop at all) in other natural and modelled settings.The conclusion that foci of tsunamigenic earthquakes R' are confined to the margin between sibsiding and uplifting regions challenges the traditional concept that a tsunami is a consequence of a sharp rise in the seabed in the local uplift area. A slashing subsidence of a vast area of the seabed entails an equally sudden sharp lowering of the sea level and the retreat of the sea from the coast. Such a phenomena was observed by unlucky tourists at the Phuket island just before the Sumatra tsunami. In a similar way, a sudden uplifting of the seabed in the area adjacent to the trough causes a corresponding rise of the sea level. In such cases, masses of water, that are much more mobile than terrestrial masses, are subject to the gravitational disequilibrium, rush towards the shore and cause a tsunami (Fig. 55).A consolidated model of tsunamigenic earthquakes resulting from the trend to restoration of the gravity equilibrium is shown in Fig. 63. According to our conclusions, it is recommended that tsunamigenic earthquakes forecasting should be based on continuous high-precision and high-frequency monitoring of GPS and gravitational field measurements and aimed at early detection of a tendency to inversion of tectonic movements and gravity anomalies in the island arc – trench ‘tectonopairs’.Observations of the so-called seismic ‘nails’ (Figs. 59–61) should also be conducted. Seismic ‘nails’ can be interpreted as incipient Riedel megashears R', consisting of smaller tension megafractures (similar to those shown in Figs. 10, 11, 14, and 17), which are viewed as precursors of a strong earthquake.
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We explore extreme nonlinear water-wave amplification in a contraction or, analogously, wave amplification in crossing seas. The latter case can lead to extreme or rogue-wave formation at sea. First, amplification of a solitary-water-wave compound running into a contraction is disseminated experimentally in a wave tank. Maximum amplification in our bore–soliton–splash observed is circa tenfold. Subsequently, we summarise some nonlinear and numerical modelling approaches, validated for amplifying, contracting waves. These amplification phenomena observed have led us to develop a novel wave-energy device with wave amplification in a contraction used to enhance wave-activated buoy motion and magnetically induced energy generation. An experimental proof-of-principle shows that our wave-energy device works. Most importantly, we develop a novel wave-to-wire mathematical model of the combined wave hydrodynamics, wave-activated buoy motion and electric power generation by magnetic induction, from first principles, satisfying one grand variational principle in its conservative limit. Wave and buoy dynamics are coupled via a Lagrange multiplier, which boundary value at the waterline is in a subtle way solved explicitly by imposing incompressibility in a weak sense. Dissipative features, such as electrical wire resistance and nonlinear LED loads, are added a posteriori. New is also the intricate and compatible finite-element space–time discretisation of the linearised dynamics, guaranteeing numerical stability and the correct energy transfer between the three subsystems. Preliminary simulations of our simplified and linearised wave-energy model are encouraging and involve a first study of the resonant behaviour and parameter dependence of the device.
