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Infections of birds, animals and humans with different influenza A virus in Egypt from 1910s to 2014
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Outside Asia, Egypt is considered to be an influenza H5N1 epicentre and presents a far greater pandemic risk than other countries. The long-term endemicity of H5N1 and the recent emergence of H9N2 in poultry call attention to the need for unravelling the epidemiology, ecology and highly diverse gene pool of influenza A virus (IAV) in Egypt which is...
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... attention has been paid to the possible role of wild birds in the introduction of different pathogens including IAV. 29 78 Interestingly, it was found that viruses originated from 4 different flyways rather than the 2 flyways in Egypt. 78 The most infected wild birds in Egypt were the northern shov- eler, common teal and Egyptian goose ( Table 1). ...
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... has been the most prevalent IAV subtype in wild birds in Egypt since 2003. It has been isolated in combination with N1, N4, N7 and N9 NA-subtypes ( Table 1). Five H10N7 viruses were isolated from wild birds (teal ducks and shoveler) between 18 and 22 April 2004, in a market of hunted migratory birds. ...
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... 2003, H7 subtype has been the second most prevalent subtype in wild birds in Egypt ( Table 1). An H7N7 was isolated from a black kite "Milvus migrans" in migration-season in the 2005 from South Sinai. ...
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... The virus has been also isolated from shoveler, green-wing teal and Egyptian goose in the period 2004-2006. 39,84 Moreover, H7N1, H7N3 and H7N9 were identified between 2004 and 2007 ( Table 1). ...
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... 1970s to 2007, IAV's of the subtypes H1, H2, H3, H4, H6, H9, H11 and H13 were identified in wild birds in Egypt as summarized in Table 1. 75,78,[84][85][86][87][88] Prevalence of IAV in Animals Pigs While pigs are frequently infected by H1 and H3 in combina- tion with N1 or N2 subtypes however, they are susceptible to many other IAV subtypes 89 and hence they act as a "mixing vessel" for different influenza viruses. ...
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... In another study, 47.5% of 2-60 months old children (n D 1200) were positive in 2010-2011 In addition to the flu-like illness induced by the virus, 152 ocular manifestations were also reported. 153 Zoonotic transmission of IAV in Egypt Hitherto, 3 IAV sub-types have successfully jumped from ani- mals to humans in Egypt; H1N1, H5N1 and H10N7 ( Table 1). ...
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Citations
... Moreover, the NA enzymatic activities of Egyptian N9N2 strains were tremendous [15]. Thus, Egypt is potentially developing into a hotspot for new influenza pandemics [16]. ...
The H9N2 subtype of avian influenza A virus (aIAV) is circulating among birds worldwide, leading to severe economic losses. H9N2 cocirculation with other highly pathogenic aIAVs has the potential to contribute to the rise of new strains with pandemic potential. Therefore, rapid detection of H9 aIAVs infection is crucial to control virus spread. A qualitative reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) assay for the detection of aIAV subtype H9N2 was developed. All results were compared to the gold standard (real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)). The RT-RPA assay was designed to detect the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of H9N2 by testing three pairs of primers and a probe. A serial concentration between 106 and 100 EID50 (50% embryo infective dose)/mL was applied to calculate the analytical sensitivity. The H9 RT-RPA assay was highly sensitive as the lowest concentration point of a standard range at one EID50/mL was detected after 5 to 8 min. The H9N2 RT-RPA assay was highly specific as nucleic acid extracted from H9 negative samples and from other avian pathogens were not cross detected. The diagnostic sensitivity when testing clinical samples was 100% for RT-RPA and RT-PCR. In conclusion, H9N2 RT-RPA is a rapid sensitive and specific assay that easily operable in a portable device for field diagnosis of aIAV H9N2.
... To the author's knowledge, Egypt has been considered an endemic country with AIVs since February 2006 [17,21,31,38]. The present findings provide interesting data about the occurrence of the HPAI H5 gene in poultry isolated during several outbreaks from 100 farms in Dakahlia governorate, Egypt over ten years. ...
... Our present results are higher than reported in previous studies in Egypt such as that carried by Elkersh [62][63][64]. Among others, migratory and wild birds, variation in the biosecurity measures and hygiene practices of commercial farms, the predominance of live bird trading markets and transportation habits might represent the potential factors that might contribute to this variation of our present results versus the previous studies, favoring the continued endemicity of HPAI H5 [17,63,[65][66][67]. ...
... Clearly, the identity between the present study isolates and human isolates ranging from 96.91% to 99.48% reveals the zoonotic nature of these strains. This close genetic relatedness of our present results clades with the previously reported Egyptian clades and genotypes suggest the existence of single source of infection besides the further spread of the strains that could be related to trade of live birds, and as consequence, this enhances the reassortment activities of influenza subtypes [17,72]. ...
Simple Summary: Avian influenza virus (H5) remains one of the challenging zoonotic viruses in Egypt. Our study investigated the occurrence of this virus among chickens from Dakhalia governorate, Egypt over ten years through histopathological examination and molecular characterization of the virus. The molecular characterization was followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the positive samples. Importantly, we have reported several interesting pathological changes and high occurrence of the H5 avian influenza virus, the phylogenetic analysis revealed that positive samples were aligned with several Egyptian sub clades. Clearly, our study concludes the widespread of the virus among poultry flocks in Egypt and suggests further future research aims to develop an efficient surveillance program with investigation into the effectiveness of the implemented control measures for controlling this disease of public health concern. Abstract: Avian influenza virus (AIV) remains one of the enzootic zoonotic diseases that challenges the poultry industry in Egypt. In the present study, a total of 500 tissue samples were collected from 100 chicken farms (broilers and layers) suspected to be infected with AIV through the period from 2009 to 2019 from Dakahlia governorate, Egypt. These samples were pooled in 100 working samples and screened for AIV then the positive samples were subjected to histopathological examination combined with real time-polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR). RRT-PCR positive samples were also subjected to conventional reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of H5 AIV and some of these resulting positive samples were sequenced for detection of the molecular nature of the studied virus. Interestingly, the histopathological examination revealed necrotic liver with leukocytic infiltration with degenerative changes with necrotic pancreatitis, edema, and intense lymphoid depletion of splenic tissue and hyperplastic tracheal epithelium. Likewise, edema and congested sub mucosal blood vessels and intense bronchial necrosis with hyalinized wall vascular wall and heterophils infiltration were reported. Pneumonic areas with intense leukocytic aggregation mainly and vasculitis of the pulmonary blood vessels were also detected in lung. Collectively, these significant pathological changes in examined tissues cohered with AIV infection. Regarding the molecular characterization, 66 samples were positive for AIV by RRT-PCR and 52 of them were positive for H5 AIV by RT-PCR. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H5 viruses identified in this study were aligned with other Egyptian H5N1 AIVs in the Egyptian sub clade 2.2.1, while some of the identified strains were aligned with other Egyptian H5N8 strains in the new Egyptian sub clade 2.3.4.4. Taken together, our present findings emphasize the wide spread of AIV in Egypt and the importance of developing an efficient surveillance and periodical screening program for controlling such disease of public health concern.
... In 2017, H7N9 AIV, which has low pathogenicity in chickens, mutated into a highly pathogenic strain for chickens and caused hundreds of cases of human infections in China [13][14][15][16]. Among others, humans contract the zoonotic strains of the virus through direct contact with infected poultry, implicating the importance of strict hygienic measures to control the disease [10,17]. In accordance with its evolution, the first highly pathogenic H5N1 wave occurred in South East Asia and began with isolation of HPAI H5 from sick geese in Guangdong, China in 1996 [18,19]. ...
... Since then, the HPAI H5N1 virus has succeeded to preserve itself in several countries, causing an endemic state with regular outbreaks of the disease [20]. Nowadays, Egypt has been considered the epicenter of the H5N1 outside Asia and hotspot for new subtypes and genotypes evolution [17,21,22]. On the other hand, the HPAI H5N8 was detected for the first time in 2010 in live bird markets in China, then the virus got spread by migratory birds to various areas worldwide including Europe, North America, East Asia, and then in Egypt by December 2016 [23][24][25]. ...
... To the author's knowledge, Egypt has been considered an endemic country with AIVs since February 2006 [17,21,31,38]. The present findings provide interesting data about the occurrence of the HPAI H5 gene in poultry isolated during several outbreaks from 100 farms in Dakahlia governorate, Egypt over ten years. ...
Avian influenza virus (AIV) remains one of the enzootic zoonotic diseases that challenges the poultry industry in Egypt. In the present study, a total of 500 tissue samples were collected from 100 chicken farms (broilers and layers) suspected to be infected with AIV through the period from 2009 to 2019 from Dakahlia governorate, Egypt. These samples were pooled in 100 working samples and screened for AIV then the positive samples were subjected to histopathological examination combined with real time-polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR). RRT-PCR positive samples were also subjected to conventional reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of H5 AIV and some of these resulting positive samples were sequenced for detection of the molecular nature of the studied virus. Interestingly, the histopathological examination revealed necrotic liver with leukocytic infiltration with degenerative changes with necrotic pancreatitis, edema, and intense lymphoid depletion of splenic tissue and hyperplastic tracheal epithelium. Likewise, edema and congested sub mucosal blood vessels and intense bronchial necrosis with hyalinized wall vascular wall and heterophils infiltration were reported. Pneumonic areas with intense leukocytic aggregation mainly and vasculitis of the pulmonary blood vessels were also detected in lung. Collectively, these significant pathological changes in examined tissues cohered with AIV infection. Regarding the molecular characterization, 66 samples were positive for AIV by RRT-PCR and 52 of them were positive for H5 AIV by RT-PCR. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H5 viruses identified in this study were aligned with other Egyptian H5N1 AIVs in the Egyptian sub clade 2.2.1, while some of the identified strains were aligned with other Egyptian H5N8 strains in the new Egyptian sub clade 2.3.4.4. Taken together, our present findings emphasize the wide spread of AIV in Egypt and the importance of developing an efficient surveillance and periodical screening program for controlling such disease of public health concern.
... Influenza virus subtype H9N2 is a LPAI virus and the most widespread avian influenza subtype in poultry DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2020.3 worldwide (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Nagy et al., 2017). In Iraq, H9N2 is endemic since 2004 (Kraidi et al., 2016;Kraidi et al., 2017;Mohamed et al., 2018). ...
... Feral and domestic pigeons are found worldwide and can easily cross borders like the wild aquatic birds, and sometimes live close to these aquatic birds. Many reports have mentioned that wild aquatic and domestic birds are reservoirs for influenza A viruses (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Nagy et al., 2017;Kausar et al., 2018). The possibility of transmission of such viruses to pigeons is acceptable as many studies have reported the natural infection of pigeons with the H9N2 influenza virus (Gomaa et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2015;Kandeil et al., 2017;Kausar et al., 2018;Tolba et al., 2018). ...
... A novel HPAI reassortant of H5N2 subtype was detected in a domestic duck farm in Dakahlia Governorate that seemed to be the first natural reassortant of AIVs in Egypt (Hagag et al., 2019). Hence, with this brief background, Egypt may be considered a hotspot for evolution of new subtypes owing to the cocirculation of three endemic subtypes and the zoonotic importance of H5N1 virus, thus increasing concerns for public and animal health (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Naguib and Harder, 2018). Here we summarized the status and zoonotic potential of avian influenza viruses circulating in Egypt from 2006 until 2019. ...
Endemicity of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and LPAI H9N2 viruses in Egypt represents
a threat to animals and humans. Moreover, introduction of HPAI H5N8 virus into Egypt through migratory birds
during late 2016 increased the challenge. A novel non distributing H5N2 reassortant was recently detected in domestic
ducks in winter 2018. The co-circulation of these subtypes and their zoonotic importance make Egypt a hotspot for
the generation of new subtypes of the virus. Occasionally, humans are infected with H5N1 subtype leading to high
mortalities; however, no human to human transmission has been reported. Here we review the status of AIV in Egypt
from 2006 to 2019 and the mode of transmission of the virus in relation to its zoonotic implications.
... A novel HPAI reassortant of H5N2 subtype was detected in a domestic duck farm in Dakahlia Governorate that seemed to be the first natural reassortant of AIVs in Egypt (Hagag et al., 2019). Hence, with this brief background, Egypt may be considered a hotspot for evolution of new subtypes owing to the cocirculation of three endemic subtypes and the zoonotic importance of H5N1 virus, thus increasing concerns for public and animal health (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Naguib and Harder, 2018). Here we summarized the status and zoonotic potential of avian influenza viruses circulating in Egypt from 2006 until 2019. ...
Endemicity of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and LPAI H9N2 viruses in Egypt represents
a threat to animals and humans. Moreover, introduction of HPAI H5N8 virus into Egypt through migratory birds
during late 2016 increased the challenge. A novel non distributing H5N2 reassortant was recently detected in domestic
ducks in winter 2018. The co-circulation of these subtypes and their zoonotic importance make Egypt a hotspot for
the generation of new subtypes of the virus. Occasionally, humans are infected with H5N1 subtype leading to high
mortalities; however, no human to human transmission has been reported. Here we review the status of AIV in Egypt
from 2006 to 2019 and the mode of transmission of the virus in relation to its zoonotic implications.
... Outbreaks were observed particularly during cold season, but several cases were diagnosed year-round especially in the Nile Delta region Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015). The H9N2 viruses were frequently detected in co-infected poultry flocks with IBV, NDV, H5 AIV subtype, Mg and Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) (Hassan et al., 2016;Naguib et al., 2017). ...
... However, in Egypt the virus appeared from December 2010 (Abdel-Moneim et al., 2012;Monne et al., 2013) to May 2011, when the first record was done in quail (El-Zoghby et al., 2012), then spread in all the domestic poultry species all over Egypt . Previously, there was a shared evidence for the presence of H9N2 viruses in LBM but the virus wasn't isolated (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015), Also, a serological investigation revealed that theH9N2 virus was wide-spread in the commercial sector between February 2009 and April 2012 (Afifi et al., 2013). Since the introduction of the LPAI H9N2 in Egypt, it becomes endemic in parallel co -circulation with H5N1 , and recently with newly introduced HPAI H5N8 (Selim et al., 2017;Yehia et al., 2018). ...
... In this study, the epidemiological data revealed that the LPAI H9N2 virus still circulating with a higher incidence in the chicken of commercial sectors more than other species and other sectors as mentioned before in Table 3 and Figure 5. that finding was compatible with the previously studied in Egypt (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Adel et al., 2017;Kandeil et al., 2017). ...
... As known, the incidence of avian influenza increases in cold weather during winter (Park and Glass, 2007), however, the last studies recorded many outbreaks all over the year in spite of the weather (Abdelwhab and Abdel-Moneim, 2015;Arafa et al., 2012). The highest positivity for H9N2 were recorded during the spring and early summer of 2016 (88-97%), while during winter of 2015-2016 the positive cases were at the lowest level (20-23%)as shown in Figure 1. ...
Since the first isolation of the H9N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus in 2011, the virus has distributed rapidly and widely in different poultry sectors in Egypt causing severe economic losses and the problematic situation in poultry production especially with a co-infection with other circulating pathogens. In this study, 1026 confirmed positive H9N2 cases by RT-PCR out of 23182 different examined samples of different species and sectors in Egypt, with a prevalence rate 4.4% by the year 2015/2016. However, the LPAI H9N2 showed a wide range distribution with high geo-prevalence rate in 2015/2016 (96.3%) as positive cases were recorded in 26 governorates., the positive samples were distributed in 783 farms with the highest prevalence rate (76.5%), Also, the most of positive cases were detected in chicken as the highest prevalence (90%) among all the examined species, Genetically, the genetic sequence for the Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA) of circulating Egyptian viruses are belonging to the Middle East G1- like viruses in group B that were closely related to each other and scattered phylogenetically in different subgroups with the presence of variant viruses in the quail during 2015.
... The virus later spread worldwide, causing a pandemic, and the most recorded cases then, as reported by the WHO in the Middle East, were in Saudi Arabia with 14,500 cases, followed by Kuwait [69], Egypt, and Oman; with less number of infected patients [68,75]. Nevertheless, between 1979 and 1980, a serosurveillance outcome of swine influenza virus from Egypt provided evidence of laboratory diagnosis and very early confirmation of the virus in human patients [76]. In Saudi Arabia, the influenza surveillance system has been established since 2004. ...
... Interestingly, the presentation of influenza virus infections in humans usually vary from mild, self-limiting respiratory-like illness, to severe cases that may result in death [70,79]. Nevertheless, a recent study has shown that subclinical infection in human exists, as revealed by the serological surveillance [76,80]. Therefore, the epidemiological surveillance of influenza in Saudi Arabia is highly important especially with the fact that influenza cases have also been highly reported can spread globally [78]. ...
Currently, there has been an increasing socioeconomic impact of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animals to humans worldwide. Recently, in the Arabian Peninsula, including in Saudi Arabia, epidemiological data indicated an actual increase in the number of emerging and/or reemerging cases of several viral zoonotic diseases. Data presented in this review are very relevant because Saudi Arabia is considered the largest country in the Peninsula. We believe that zoonotic pathogens in Saudi Arabia remain an important public health problem; however, more than 10 million Muslim pilgrims from around 184 Islamic countries arrive yearly at Makkah for the Hajj season and/or for the Umrah. Therefore, for health reasons, several countries recommend vaccinations for various zoonotic diseases among preventive protocols that should be complied with before traveling to Saudi Arabia. However, there is a shortage of epidemiological data focusing on the emerging and reemerging of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animal to humans in different densely populated cities and/or localities in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, further efforts might be needed to control the increasing impacts of zoonotic viral disease. Also, there is a need for a high collaboration to enhance the detection and determination of the prevalence, diagnosis, control, and prevention as well as intervention and reduction in outbreaks of these diseases in Saudi Arabia, particularly those from other countries. Persons in the health field including physicians and veterinarians, pet owners, pet store owners, exporters, border guards, and people involved in businesses related to animal products have adopted various preventive strategies. Some of these measures might pave the way to highly successful prevention and control results on the different transmission routes of these viral zoonotic diseases from or to Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the prevention of these viral pathogens depends on socioeconomic impacts, available data, improved diagnosis, and highly effective therapeutics or prophylaxis.
... Evidence-based measures aiming to limit and prevent AIV transmission between wild and domestic birds may include interventions that minimize the contact of domestic birds with wild birds at backyard farms (such as strengthening biosecurity measures [69]) as well as around LBM (such as temporally closure [70], reduction in the illegal wild bird hunting [67], limiting markets in coastal cities [71,72], and minimizing transportation of live birds to and from LBM within and between governates [12]). ...
Wild birds of the orders Anseriformes (mainly ducks, geese and swans) and Charadriiformes (mainly gulls, terns and waders) constitute the natural reservoir for low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses. In Egypt, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and LPAI H9N2 viruses are endemic in domestic poultry, forming a threat to animal and human health and raising questions about the routes of introduction and mechanisms of persistence. Recently, HPAI H5N8 virus was also introduced into Egyptian domestic birds. Here we review the literature on the role of wild birds in the introduction and endemicity of avian influenza viruses in Egypt. Dabbling ducks in Egypt harbor an extensive LPAI virus diversity and may constitute the route of introduction for HPAI H5N1 and HPAI H5N8 viruses into Egypt through migration, however their role in the endemicity of HPAI H5N1, LPAI H9N2 and potentially other avian influenza virus (AIV) strains – by means of reassortment of viral genes – is less clear. Strengthened surveillance programs, in both domestic and wild birds, that include all LPAI virus subtypes and full genome sequencing are needed to better assess the wild–domestic bird interface and form a basis for evidence-based measures to limit and prevent AIV transmission between wild and domestic birds.
