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The concept of Indian Cultural Landscape refers to a complex cultural mosaic and network of spatiality of time, temporality of space, sacrality of nature and overall the encompassing manifestation of transcendence of man who since time immemorial is trying to make a strong bridge between conscious mind and super-conscious divine. This way the inter...
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... all places sacred that embody the goddess who has the power to procreate, produce and protect (Singh and Rana 2017, p. 71). The locational pattern of the 51 pithas is noteworthy with a considerably higher concentration (around forty per cent) in the eastern part (including the northeast) of the country of the shrines may be located in this region (Fig. 8). The scattered pattern of the 51 most important goddess shrines played their role in projecting the Greater India (Mahā Bhārata) as singular cultural entity (see Singh 1997). They have held Indian people together, who otherwise belong to multiple and diverse ethnic-cultural groups with intra-social rampant divisions, since several ...
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... During their travel, they experienced the diversity and uniqueness of different cultural landscapes in India (Singh, 2017b). Furthermore, most of the tirthas in India were difficult to traverse located on top of mountains and in remote locations. ...
Extreme human intervention in the ecological cycles leading to climate change, depleting water sources and rapid urbanisation exert intense pressure on the water infrastructure of several regions across the world. At the same time, design of current water infrastructure itself based on the post-industrial principle of controlling nature using modern technology has given rise to additional problems such as land subsidence, transformation of rivers, depletion of groundwater, human displacement and loss of biodiversity. In developing countries such as India, increasing population puts additional pressure on finite water sources. The per capita water availability in Indiais expected to fall from current 1608 m3to 1340 m3 by 2025, causing water stress conditions. There is limited scope for exploring additional water sources. Already withmore than 5000 large dams and 11.7 million tubewells, India has the highest annual freshwater usage in the world.
Against the background of these multiple and interconnected water problems worldwide and in India, research on water infrastructure design and management suggests the need to bring about a fundamental change in the way we perceive water, and manage and design our water infrastructure. It recommends the need to shift away from the modern approach that views water as a commodity and develops water infrastructure that concentrates on maximum exploitation of natural water sources through command and control over nature. Instead, it proposes a sustainable approach that causes minimum disturbance to the natural hydrological cycle, attempts to manage freshwater demand in the society and concentrates on rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling. Particularly in the case of India, research recommends the need to revive its traditional knowledge of water management and structures that diverted, stored and utilised surface-runoff, rainwater and groundwater in a sustainable manner.
The current research on traditional water structures in Indiaextensively focusses on their technical and managerial aspects. In comparison, less research focusses on their spatial aspect and form that integrate them with the settlement fabric. Furthermore, many research approaches take a mere overview of diverse water structures across India.However, very few approaches discuss in depth the socio-cultural setup within which they flourished, the reasons for their decline, and their significance in the present context. To overcome these research gaps, this research undertakes a socio-cultural perspective on understanding the value of Traditional Water Infrastructure (TWI) in creating water consciousness and reimagining water infrastructure creatively. Taking the case of Pune, India, it first examines how cultural beliefs and ideas have shaped its TWI.Then, through the case examples of traditional water cisterns, stepped water tanks, underground aqueducts and artificial lakes in Pune, it sheds light on the spatial and architectural principles of TWI. It further examines the reason for their decline during the British Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods and their role in solving current water-related problems.
The research presents data obtained through review of secondary literature and archival records carried during February and September 2017. Similarly, it presents data from field observations, photographic documentation and measured drawings done during February-March 2018 and November-December 2018. The findings reveal that the limited availability of water due to the intermittent nature of rivers and the monsoon pattern created a conscious water culture in the traditional communities that encouraged people to use water prudently.The values, beliefs and ideas emerging from such culture have shaped the TWI of Pune. The traditional water structures were location-specific and built through people’s participation and the patronage of rulers. They were not only mere utilitarian structures but also places for public gathering, interaction and performing daily rituals.
However, in spite of its critical role in sustainable water management, TWI experienced a gradual decline during the British-Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods. The British interference in the socio-cultural life patterns of people and a lack of patronage for constructing and maintaining water structures compelled the people to give up TWI gradually and rely on the modern infrastructure of dams and canals. Even after independence, the endeavour of Indian nationalists to portray India as a modern and progressive nation made them focus on the expansion of centralised water infrastructure and neglect TWI. At the same time, rapid demographic and physical expansion of Pune increased its water demand. Therefore, for finding quick-fix solutions to increased water demand, the technology of extracting groundwater by tubewells became popular. Thus, irrespective of the unsustainability of modern water infrastructure, its convenience of obtaining water easily without much effort instigated many people to give up TWI.
In light of the above findings, the research infers that the resurfacing of traditional knowledge about water management is essential for bringing back water consciousness in the society. Similarly, learning from TWI would aid us to reimagine and design our future water infrastructure in a sustainable manner. In conclusion, the research recommends four ways in which TWI could assist in solving water-related problems and improving the quality of ourenvironment. Firstly, repairing the existing TWI and designing similar smaller water storage structures in future would make water sources diverse. Accessing diverse water sources rather than a single centralised water source would make water supply more resilient to failures due to natural calamities. Secondly, TWI within urban and peri-urban areas could function as urban sponges storing rainwater and preventing excessive surface runoff. Thirdly, protecting TWI and small water bodies would maintain the biodiversity in nature, as they are the natural habitats for some rare species of flora and fauna. Besides, the presence of TWI within urban areas can help in reducing the surface temperatures significantly through evaporative cooling and reduce the heat-island effect. Lastly, TWI and designing similar structures where one experiences water can function as vibrant public places, pause points and visual landmarks within the settlement fabric.
With these conclusions and recommendations, the research suggests that in future, we cannot solve water-related problems by attempting to gain command and control over nature and the use of technology alone. Instead, it is necessary to accept that most of the problems are human-created, and they could be solved only with the correction in human action and human perception of water.
Keywords: traditional water infrastructure, culture, Pune, India
The concept of pilgrimage to four sacred sites (Char Dham Yatra) in Hinduism continues from the ancient to the present. The temple of Lord Jagannatha (a form of Vishnu), situated in Puri (eastern part of India, Odisha), is one of the most visited sites by pilgrims (ca. 4.5 million in 2017). The miniature form of the Jagannatha temple is situated in many parts of India, including Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). This city is considered one of the oldest living cities carrying traditions of various faiths, cultures, and religious practices of different communities belonging to various parts of India. It also possesses examples of spatial transposition of many pilgrimage centres distributed all over India, including the temple of Jagannatha, Puri. It is a belief that the representation of this temple in the replica form grants similar merits as that of the original one to the devotees. The Jagannatha temple of Varanasi is unique as almost the same rituals are performed just like that of the original Jagannatha Temple of Puri, e.g., the daily worship (dainik puja), the offerings (bhoga), the annual Chariot festival (Rathayatra), but of course, at a small scale. It is also part of one of the unique pilgrimage routes that represent the archetypal symbolism in the sacred city of Varanasi (also known as Kashi). This paper attempts to study the importance of mythological literature that endowed the power of "sacrality" to this site through the spatial transposition of the pilgrimage centre at Jagannatha. Besides, it also focuses on understanding the temple in terms of cultural and symbolic significance, architectural symbolism, iconography, rituals, and traditions relating to intangible cultural heritage and the challenges faced by the stakeholders for keeping this tradition alive and leading to the sustainability of heritage landscapes.
Keywords: Pilgrimage, archetype, heritage, architectural planning, replication process, Jagannatha.
