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Immature stages of Pryeria sinica (A-E) and Ivela auripes (F-I). Larvae (A, F in lateral; B, G in dorsal). Pupae (C in a cocoon; D, H in lateral; E, I in dorsal). Scale bars: 10 mm. Larval P. sinica and pupal I. auripes appear similar to each other.
Source publication
The final-instar larvae of Pryeria sinica Moore, 1877 (Zygaenidae) are conspicuously colored yellow-green with black stripes and are known to escape from attacks after predators learn of the cyanogenic fluids secreted on their body surface. Ivela auripes (Butler, 1877) (Lymantriidae) is often found in the same habitat during the same season as P. s...
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... et al. 1983). The duration of the larval stages is 38.6 days at 20°C (Shiotsu & Arakawa 1982). The nal (4th)-instar larvae of P. sinica contain two different types of cuticular cavities, which are used for the storage of a cyanogenic defensive secretion (Naumann & Feist 1987). The larvae are conspicuously colored yellowgreen with black stripes (Fig. 1A, B) and escape from attack by Japanese grass lizards, Takydromus tachydromoides (Schlegel, 1838), as the lizard learns the smell of uids secreted on the larval body surface (Johki & Hidaka 1979). Therefore, larval body color functions as a warning to predators (Johki & Hidaka 1979). The larval bodies contain linamarin, lotaustralin, ...
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... cycle. After spending the winter in the egg stage, newly hatched larvae grow and reach the nal (5th) larval instar and pupate in early summer (Togashi & Kodani 1990). Yukinari (2002) suggested that coloration may function as a warning signal to predators in the larvae of this moth, because they have a patchy body color of yellowgreen and black (Fig. 1F, G) and no birds attack them even in outbreak ...
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... B). The mean body length was 13.84 mm (SD = 0.41, N = 50, range 10.66-16.36). These larvae generally showed diurnal activity rhythms in the wandering phase before prepupation (Fig. 2). In the eld, we could easily observe such wandering larvae in the daytime. After wandering, they pupated in pale brown cocoons (Fig. 1C). The faint blackish stripes of the pupae (Fig. 1D, E) were not visible through the brownish cocoon (Fig. ...
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... body length was 13.84 mm (SD = 0.41, N = 50, range 10.66-16.36). These larvae generally showed diurnal activity rhythms in the wandering phase before prepupation (Fig. 2). In the eld, we could easily observe such wandering larvae in the daytime. After wandering, they pupated in pale brown cocoons (Fig. 1C). The faint blackish stripes of the pupae (Fig. 1D, E) were not visible through the brownish cocoon (Fig. ...
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... These larvae generally showed diurnal activity rhythms in the wandering phase before prepupation (Fig. 2). In the eld, we could easily observe such wandering larvae in the daytime. After wandering, they pupated in pale brown cocoons (Fig. 1C). The faint blackish stripes of the pupae (Fig. 1D, E) were not visible through the brownish cocoon (Fig. ...
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... auripes Pupae. The nal-instar larvae had rather elongated bodies, with somewhat complex color patterns of yellow and black (Fig. 1F, G). The pupae, however, were oval in shape and had seven longitudinal blackish lines on the dorsal half of their yellow green bodies, just like larval P. sinica (Fig. 1H, I). The mean pupal length was 21.72 mm (SD = 0.70, N = 22, range 18.10 -25.13). The pupae lack a cocoon (Fig. 1H, I). The above-ground height of pupation sites ranged ...
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... auripes Pupae. The nal-instar larvae had rather elongated bodies, with somewhat complex color patterns of yellow and black (Fig. 1F, G). The pupae, however, were oval in shape and had seven longitudinal blackish lines on the dorsal half of their yellow green bodies, just like larval P. sinica (Fig. 1H, I). The mean pupal length was 21.72 mm (SD = 0.70, N = 22, range 18.10 -25.13). The pupae lack a cocoon (Fig. 1H, I). The above-ground height of pupation sites ranged from close to the ground to the tops of the concrete walls, wooden walls, iron posts, and tree trunks (Fig. 3) and, thus, exposed to potential predators. One of the camera ...
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... with somewhat complex color patterns of yellow and black (Fig. 1F, G). The pupae, however, were oval in shape and had seven longitudinal blackish lines on the dorsal half of their yellow green bodies, just like larval P. sinica (Fig. 1H, I). The mean pupal length was 21.72 mm (SD = 0.70, N = 22, range 18.10 -25.13). The pupae lack a cocoon (Fig. 1H, I). The above-ground height of pupation sites ranged from close to the ground to the tops of the concrete walls, wooden walls, iron posts, and tree trunks (Fig. 3) and, thus, exposed to potential predators. One of the camera traps took 57 video recordings capturing 21 small ying insects, 10 humans, and 26 unknowns. The other took 15 ...
Citations
... Pupae are usually cryptic or hidden under the substrate and in inconspicuous cocoons (Wiklund & Sillén-Tullberg 1985;Edmunds 1990;Janzen et al. 2010;Paul et al. 2018). The known example of pupal warning coloration is the toxic two-spotted ladybird beetle, Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus, 1758), which has warning colors at all stages of its life cycle (Paul et al. 2018) and the unpalatable moths, Ivela auripes (Butler, 1877) and three species of Cystidia, which pupate at the exposed sites such as tree branches and leaves above the ground (Yazaki et al. 2019;Tsubuki & Hayashi 2023). ...
... For more explanation, see Table 1 Lizard that pupate above the ground are also cryptic in color which serves as camouflage to deceive the eyes of predators (Wiklund & Sillén-Tullberg 1985;Mayekar & Kodandaramaiah 2017;Yumnam et al. 2021). Pupae with warning colors are not reported except for the toxic two-spotted ladybird beetle A. bipunctata, which has warning colors at all developmental stages (Paul et al. 2018) and the unpalatable moths I. auripes and the three species of Cystidia (Yazaki et al. 2019;Tsubuki & Hayashi 2023). Warning colors evolved to alert predators that the prey is not profitable (Mappes et al. 2005(Mappes et al. , 2014. ...
Insects usually have cryptic colors to avoid detection by visually hunting predators. However, if the insects acquire toxic or repellent substances against predators, some of them develop conspicuous coloration to exhibit their unpalatability. Such warning colors allow insects to survive. In the nine-spotted diurnal moths (Erebidae: Arctiinae: Syntomini), we found the above-ground pupating species to have conspicuous colored pupae, but the ground-surface pupating species to have cryptic colored pupae. In this study, the relationships between unpalatability and coloration of these pupae are examined among three species of Amata and one species of Syntomoides. Pupae of the two species (A. germana and A. flava) are conspicuous in their color pattern with seven black dotted lines longitudinally on their pale-yellow bodies. These pupae are exposed to the aerial predators in a coarse silk mesh hanging from leaves and/or branches. The other two species (A. fortunei and S. imaon) pupate in spaces under stones, fallen twigs and leaves on the ground surface, and the pupae in a coarse silk cocoon is cryptic dark brown. Their pupation site selections are reproduced in the rearing glass vessels. Palatability assessment using lizards as a potential predator suggests that pupae of A. germana, A. flava and A. fortunei are unpalatable and the lizard's feeding response decreases with experience. However, pupae of S. imaon are all eaten (palatable). Finally, the possible evolutionary scenario of pupal colors of these four species is discussed in relation to pupation site selection and palatability.
... Chen et al. 1984;Chen & Goldsmith 1986;Fleishman et al. 1993;de Lanuza & Font 2014) and can learn (Leal & Powell 2012). Therefore, lizards are often used as the potential predators of insects (Sexton 1960;Boyden 1976;Johki & Hidaka 1979;McLain 1984;Hasegawa & Taniguchi 1994;Théry & Gomez 2010;Yazaki et al. 2019;Sugiura 2020). From these data, we discuss the relative importance of mimicry as the evolutionary background of sexually dimorphic color patterns in insects. ...
Mimicry with warning colors includes Batesian and Müllerian mimicries. If we divide mimicry by sex, there are theoretically four types of mimicry: unimodal, female‐limited, male‐limited and dual mimicry. The latter three cases cause sexual dimorphism in body color and marking pattern but are rarely reported. In this study, we show that the tussock moth Numenes albofascia is possibly a dual mimic. The wing color and marking pattern of male and female N. albofascia are completely different, with the male's pattern resembling that of the smoky moth Pidorus atratus , while the female pattern resembles that of the tiger moth Arctia caja . Body size also differs greatly between the sexes of N. albofascia , matching the mimicry model species of each sex. These moths are distributed sympatrically in Japan, and their adult seasons overlap with each other. According to lizard feeding experiments, N. albofascia is palatable, while both male and female model species are unpalatable. Actograms in the laboratory and the light trapping in the field suggest that females of N. albofascia fly actively from sunset to midnight, while males fly during the twilight period around dawn. Therefore, male and female N. albofascia might be Batesian mimics of diurnally active P. atratus and nocturnally active A. caja , respectively, and the great sexual dimorphism of this moth could be caused by dual mimicry.
... (Eupelmidae). All these moths have conspicuously colored larvae and pupae, which are formed in exposed positions, and the same is true for the toxic lymantriine Ivela auripes [188], whose caterpillars feed predominantly on Cornus species (Cornaceae). Yu et al. [149] record two species of Microgastrinae as parasitoids of these caterpillars, viz., Cotesia melanoscela and Glyptapanteles liparidis. ...
Many insects defend themselves against predation by being distasteful or toxic. The chemicals involved may be sequestered from their diet or synthesized de novo in the insects’ body tissues. Parasitoid wasps are a diverse group of insects that play a critical role in regulating their host insect populations such as lepidopteran caterpillars. The successful parasitization of caterpillars by parasitoid wasps is contingent upon their aptitude for locating and selecting suitable hosts, thereby determining their efficacy in parasitism. However, some hosts can be toxic to parasitoid wasps, which can pose challenges to their survival and reproduction. Caterpillars employ a varied array of defensive mechanisms to safeguard themselves against natural predators, particularly parasitoid wasps. These defenses are deployed pre-emptively, concurrently, or subsequently during encounters with such natural enemies. Caterpillars utilize a range of strategies to evade detection or deter and evade attackers. These tactics encompass both measures to prevent being noticed and mechanisms aimed at repelling or eluding potential threats. Post-attack strategies aim to eliminate or incapacitate the eggs or larvae of parasitoids. In this review, we investigate the dietary challenges faced by parasitoid wasps when encountering toxic hosts. We first summarize the known mechanisms through which insect hosts can be toxic to parasitoids and which protect caterpillars from parasitization. We then discuss the dietary adaptations and physiological mechanisms that parasitoid wasps have evolved to overcome these challenges, such as changes in feeding behavior, detoxification enzymes, and immune responses. We present new analyses of all published parasitoid–host records for the Ichneumonoidea that attack Lepidoptera caterpillars and show that classically toxic host groups are indeed hosts to significantly fewer species of parasitoid than most other lepidopteran groups.
... Only a few insects have been proven to be warning colors. One is the toxic two-spotted ladybird beetle, Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus, 1758), which has warning colors at all stages of its life cycle [9], and the other is the unpalatable moth, Ivela auripes (Butler, 1877), which pupates at the exposed sites such as tree trunk and rock surface above the ground and displays the conspicuous yellow pupal body with seven longitudinal stripes of blackish dots [10]. ...
... Most insects that pupate above the ground are cryptic in color that serve as camouflage to deceive the eyes of predators [2,27,28]. The exceptional examples are the toxic two-spotted ladybird beetle Adalia bipunctata, which has warning colors at all developmental stages [9], and the unpalatable moth Ivela auripes [10]. Warning colors evolved to warn predators that the prey is not profitable [29,30]. ...
Many insects display a cryptic color to avoid detection by predators that search for prey by sight. However, some species with chemicals that predators dislike may display a warning color (aposematism) to predators. The predators can learn easier that the species is unsuitable as prey if the color is more conspicuous. Therefore, it is assumed that the acquisition of the warning color requires not only unpalatability, but also exposure of the color to predators and the ability of predators to recognize and learn it unpalatable. In the moths of the subfamily Ennominae, almost all of genera produce uniformly brown or green pupae, but the pupae of the genus Cystidia have conspicuous coloration of yellow background and black spots. In this study, to clarify whether the color of these pupae is the warning color or not, we compared the coloration, pupation site, and palatability among the three species of this genus: C. couaggaria, C. truncangulata, and C. stratonice. Learning by the predators was also examined using lizards as a potential predator of the moths. The results showed that all three species were repelled (unpalatable) by the lizards, and that repeated providing of the pupae to the lizards decreased their willingness to prey on them (probably due to learning). Pupation sites of C. couaggaria and C. truncangulata were located on the surface of branches and leaves high above the ground, whereas C. stratonice pupated in the space of leaves spun with course silk at lower site above the ground. Thus, the conspicuous coloration of pupal Cystidia is considered to be a warning color, but the pupae of C. stratonice are more blackish than those of the most closely related C. truncangulata. The pupal color of C. stratonice is likely to have a dual meaning as cryptic and warning colors. The dark colored pupa may be inconspicuous when hidden within the leaf space, but once detected by the predators, the yellow color of the pupa may function as a warning color.
Booklet with Abstracts of lectures and posters on the XVII International Symposium on Zygaenidae. 13–16 September 2022
