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Hypothetical examples of exponential forgetting functions in the square root of time that differ in slope b, but not intercept a (left panel), and discrete values of R o from the modified White-Wixted model at different times in the retention interval, needed to generate the values of discriminability for the hypothetical forgetting functions in the left panel (right panel).
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... Typically, forgetting on the DMS task is attributed to the memory trace decaying over time (Roberts, 1972). White and Brown (2014), however, recently proposed an alternative model based on reinforcement context. The basis of their theory is White and Wixted's (1999) model, in which the subject's choice between two alternatives is based on the ratio of rewards previously gained (R 1i/R2i). ...
... The basis of their theory is White and Wixted's (1999) model, in which the subject's choice between two alternatives is based on the ratio of rewards previously gained (R 1i/R2i). White and Brown (2014) added reinforcement for other behaviors (Ro) to the model, arguing that they may compete with the rewards provided for completing the actual task. Indeed, as Herrnstein's (1970) matching law notes, the strength of a response is not simply a function of the reinforcement it produces but is relative to the reinforcers provided for alternative behaviors. ...
... Indeed, as Herrnstein's (1970) matching law notes, the strength of a response is not simply a function of the reinforcement it produces but is relative to the reinforcers provided for alternative behaviors. White and Brown (2014) argued that the superior performance of subjects under a DO condition, relative to a CO condition, was due to rewards under the DO condition having a stronger effect than those under the CO condition. As Figure 1 demonstrates, however, the superior performance of birds under the DO condition is due to averaging their extremely high performance on rewarded (i.e., skateboard) trials (99%) and their moderate performance on nonrewarded (i.e., flower) trials (76%). ...
The delayed matching-to-sample (DMS) task is widely employed to assess memory in a range of nonhuman animals. On the standard “common outcomes” (CO) DMS task, correct performance following either sample stimulus results in reinforcement. In contrast, on a “differential outcomes” (DO) DMS task, the outcome following either sample stimulus is different. One of the most consistent findings in the comparative literature is that performance under a DO condition is superior to that under a CO condition. The superior performance is attributed to the fact the DO condition enhances memory for the sample stimulus by tagging each sample with a discrete reward. Here, we investigate an alternative possibility: that pigeons use positional mediation during the delay under DO but not CO conditions. To test this, we tracked the head position of pigeons performing a DO (n = 4) or CO (n = 4) task. Consistent with the positional mediation account, all subjects in the DO condition displayed evidence of positional mediation. Surprisingly, positional mediation was not unique to subjects in the DO condition, with subjects in the CO condition also displaying evidence of mediation.
... A switch from a lower level to a higher level of discrimination, or vice versa, can occur at any time in the retention interval. The behavioral theories of remembering proposed by Nevin, Davison, Odum, and Shahan (2007), and White and Brown (2014), offer quantitative predictions of forgetting functions that differ in intercept or slope. Both theories are able to account for atypical forgetting functions, by assuming time-independent changes in the mediating effect of attending to sample and comparison stimuli (in Nevin et al.'s model) or in the direct effect of the context of reinforcement of the conditional discrimination (in White & Brown's model). ...
... These experiments are briefly reviewed in the present paper. In particular, their implications are discussed for two behavioural theories of remembering, one of which assumes that remembering is mediated (Nevin, Davison, Odum, & Shahan, 2007), and the other which assumes that remembering is direct (White & Brown, 2014). ...
... The two theories considered here make impressive quantitative predictions about the effects of a wide range of variables influencing delayed matching-to-sample performance (see White, 2013, for review). In the theory proposed by Nevin et al. (2007), the mechanism for action at a temporal distance is indirect, whereas in the theory proposed by White and Brown (2014), it is direct. Despite this difference in perspective, both theories can offer plausible accounts of atypical forgetting functions, as will be discussed below. ...
Atypical forgetting functions have been demonstrated in several recent studies of delayed matching to sample, in which experimental conditions are altered partway through the retention interval. The forgetting functions are atypical in that accuracy or discriminability is not always a negatively accelerated monotonic function of increasing retention interval duration, but may increase at later times in the retention interval. Atypical forgetting functions reflect changes in levels of discrimination. A switch from a lower level to a higher level of discrimination, or vice versa, can occur at any time in the retention interval. The behavioral theories of remembering proposed by Nevin, Davison, Odum, and Shahan (2007), and White and Brown (2014), offer quantitative predictions of forgetting functions that differ in intercept or slope. Both theories are able to account for atypical forgetting functions, by assuming time-independent changes in the mediating effect of attending to sample and comparison stimuli (in Nevin et al.'s model) or in the direct effect of the context of reinforcement of the conditional discrimination (in White & Brown's model). Despite differences in their main assumptions, the theories have an edge over any theory that assumes that forgetting is time-dependent.
When short-term memory is assessed in the delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) procedure, performance is better when cues signal larger reinforcer magnitudes or higher reinforcer probabilities for correct responding. Previous studies demonstrating signaled-magnitude or signaled-probability effects presented cues for a prolonged period during the sample stimulus and/or retention interval. The present study asked whether a signaled-probability effect would occur with brief post-sample cues that signaled the presence or absence of reinforcement. Five pigeons responded in a DMTS task in which sample stimuli were sometimes followed by a 0.5-s cue signaling that reinforcers would either be available or not available in the current trial, and the retention interval varied from 0.5 s to 20 s. A reliable signaled-probability effect was found when reinforcers were arranged independently and for all correct responses, whereas a smaller, less systematic effect was found when reinforcers were arranged dependently and probabilistically. These findings highlight the importance of reinforcement contingencies and contingency discriminability in remembering, and add to the evidence showing that cues signaling differential reinforcement in DMTS may affect processes during the retention interval and comparison phase, rather than attention to the sample stimulus.
Given that both sexes of most parrots learn new vocalizations throughout life and produce them in diverse social contexts, whereas few songbird species combine all these traits, why are parrots not a better model for the evolution of human speech than songbirds? We first note the technical constraints that have limited research on wild parrot communication and then review the discoveries that have accumulated in the last two decades as constraints were overcome. Vocal learning in wild parrots appears unrelated to sexual selection and mate competition but is used by parrot pairs to defend nest sites in ways similar to those of songbirds. Where parrots differ from songbirds is in their specialization on toxic and armored foods, the consequences of this diet on foraging and social dynamics, and the use of learned vocalizations to mediate those dynamics. Parrots thus use learned vocalizations for two quite different functions, only one of which they share with songbirds (and hummingbirds). Interestingly, recent neurobiological studies have shown that parrots have dual cortical pathway nuclei for vocal learning, only one of which is present in songbirds. The parallels between the distributions of functions of vocal learning and brain nuclei suggest future research that should clarify both how and why parrots are more extensive vocal learners than songbirds and whether there are in fact parallels with humans.
The reinforcement context model for performance in delayed matching-to- sample tasks (White and Brown, 2014) predicts the course of forgetting based on the assumption that rewards for extraneous behavior compete with rewards for accurate matching and increase as a linear function of retention-interval duration. In the differential outcomes effect, greater matching accuracy occurs when correct choices produce different outcomes, which the model assumes have greater reward effectiveness than same outcomes. The model was tested in the present experiment with pigeons by arranging an additional task during the retention interval of a delayed matching-to-sample task, center-key pecking rewarded by food delivered at variable intervals. This additional source of extraneous reward resulted in attenuation of the differential outcomes effect as predicted by the model. The model was supported by satisfactory quantitative fits to the forgetting functions for same and different outcome conditions with and without additional extraneous reward.
