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![High performance multifunctional photopolymer for PµSL based 3D printing. (a) Highly deformable shape memory polymer for 4D printing. Reproduced from [36]. CC BY 4.0. (b) Highly stretchable and UV curable elastomer. [66] John Wiley & Sons. © 2017 WILEY–VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Highly stretchable and UV curable hydrogel. Reproduced from [56] with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Reprocessable thermosets for sustainable 3D printing. Reproduced from [67]. CC BY 4.0. (e) Self-healing elastomer for additive manufacturing. Reproduced from [68]. CC BY 4.0. (f) Self-healing polyurethane elastomers for 3D printing. Reprinted with permission from [69]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical Society.](publication/340954794/figure/fig6/AS:11431281207864754@1701350565436/High-performance-multifunctional-photopolymer-for-PSL-based-3D-printing-a-Highly.jpg)
High performance multifunctional photopolymer for PµSL based 3D printing. (a) Highly deformable shape memory polymer for 4D printing. Reproduced from [36]. CC BY 4.0. (b) Highly stretchable and UV curable elastomer. [66] John Wiley & Sons. © 2017 WILEY–VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Highly stretchable and UV curable hydrogel. Reproduced from [56] with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Reprocessable thermosets for sustainable 3D printing. Reproduced from [67]. CC BY 4.0. (e) Self-healing elastomer for additive manufacturing. Reproduced from [68]. CC BY 4.0. (f) Self-healing polyurethane elastomers for 3D printing. Reprinted with permission from [69]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical Society.
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Projection micro stereolithography (PµSL) is a high-resolution (up to 0.6 µm) 3D printing technology based on area projection triggered photopolymerization, and capable of fabricating complex 3D architectures covering multiple scales and with multiple materials. This paper reviews the recent development of the PµSL based 3D printing technologies, t...
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Citations
... The combination of soft lithography and 3D printing, especially stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP), empowers the fabrication of a simple, fast turnaround, and low-cost soft lithography mold prototyping with lower than ten-micrometer resolution [13,14]. However, an unavoidable problem with SLA or DLP printed resin mold is the inhibition of PDMS curing. ...
... The molds used in this study were produced with a 3D printer based on projection micro stereolithography (S140, BMF, China) [13]. Both the lateral and axial printing resolution of this 3D printer are 10 µm. ...
Retinal vascular health holds paramount importance for healthy vision. Many technologies have been developed to examine retinal vasculature non-destructively, including fundus cameras, optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), fluorescein angiography (FA), and so on. However, there is a lack of a proper phantom simulating the critical features of the real human retina to calibrate and evaluate the performance of these technologies. In this work, we present a rapid, high-resolution, and economical technology based on 3D printed mold-based soft lithography and spin coating for the fabrication of a multivascular network and multilayer structural retinal phantom with the appropriate optical properties. The feasibility of the retinal phantom as a test device was demonstrated with an OCTA system and a confocal retinal ophthalmoscope. Experiment results prove that the retinal phantom could provide an objective evaluation of the OCTA and confocal retinal ophthalmoscope. Furthermore, the microfluidic phantoms enabled by this fabrication technology may support the development and evaluation of other techniques.
... During VP printing process, the photopolymer resin contained in resin vat is cured layer-by-layer through laser scanning or ultraviolet (UV) light patterning that triggers localized photopolymerization, converting liquid resin to 3D objects. Depending on the curing light source, VP can further be classified into stereolithography (SLA) [51][52][53], digital light processing (DLP) [54][55][56][57][58], two-photon polymerization (TPP) [59][60][61][62][63][64], and volumetric 3D printing [65][66][67][68]. Compared with the other three techniques, DLP performs the localized photopolymerization through projecting 2D UV patterns on the surface of liquid polymer resin, and combines the feature of high resolution with fast speed. ...
Multimaterial (MM) 3D printing shows great potential for application in metamaterials, flexible electronics, biomedical devices and robots, since it can seamlessly integrate distinctive materials into one printed structure. Among numerous MM 3D printing technologies, digital light processing (DLP) MM 3D printing is compatible with a wide range of materials from hydrogels to ceramics, and can print MM 3D structures with high resolution, high complexity and fast speed. This paper introduces the fundamental mechanisms of DLP 3D printing, and reviews the recent advances of DLP MM 3D printing technologies with emphasis on material switching methods and material contamination issues. It also summarizes a number of typical examples of DLP MM 3D printing systems developed in the past decade, and introduces their system structures, working principles, material switching methods, residual resin removal methods, printing steps, as well as the representative structures and applications. Finally, we provide perspectives on the directions of the further development of DLP MM 3D printing technology.
... They mainly include fused deposition modeling (11,15), inkjet (13,(16)(17)(18), direct ink writing (5,19), two-photon polymerization (14), and digital light processing (DLP) (1,6,10,20). Among them, DLP enables fabrication of 3D structures with high resolution and large area (21), and thus has been widely adopted for 4D printing. To achieve 4D printing, we need to print 3D structures with environmental responsive smart materials, which mainly include hydrogels (5,6), liquid crystal elastomers (19,22), and shape memory polymers (SMPs) (1, 9-11, 14-18, 20). ...
4D printing enables 3D printed structures to change shape over “time” in response to environmental stimulus. Because of relatively high modulus, shape memory polymers (SMPs) have been widely used for 4D printing. However, most SMPs for 4D printing are thermosets, which only have one permanent shape. Despite the efforts that implement covalent adaptable networks (CANs) into SMPs to achieve shape reconfigurability, weak thermomechanical properties of the current CAN-SMPs exclude them from practical applications. Here, we report reconfigurable 4D printing via mechanically robust CAN-SMPs (MRC-SMPs), which have high deformability at both programming and reconfiguration temperatures (>1400%), high T g (75°C), and high room temperature modulus (1.06 GPa). The high printability for DLP high-resolution 3D printing allows MRC-SMPs to create highly complex SMP 3D structures that can be reconfigured multiple times under large deformation. The demonstrations show that the reconfigurable 4D printing allows one printed SMP structure to fulfill multiple tasks.
... Multi-material vat polymerization achieves higher resolution and more complex geometry across multiple scales compared to the other two processes [7]. These advantages are mainly enabled by projection stereolithography (PSL) process, which projects 2D pattern to selectively cure liquid photocurable resin [8]. Being able to cure a full layer with millions of pixels, PSL offers a great balance between resolution and speed compared to other vat photopolymerization processes including stereolithography (SLA) and two-photon polymerization (TPP) [9]. ...
Multi-material additive manufacturing (MMAM) takes full advantage of the ability to arbitrarily place materials of additive manufacturing technology, enabling immense design freedom and functional print capabilities. Among MMAM technologies, projection stereolithography (PSL) exhibits a great balance of high resolution and fast printing speed. However, fabrication accuracy of multi-material PSL is hindered by large overcure used to strengthen interfacial bonding weakened by chemical affinity and material-exchange process. We present a novel multi-step exposure method for multi-material PSL process to overcome this shortcoming. Firstly, the whole layer is moderately exposed producing overcure of single-material PSL level to generate geometries. Then weakened interfaces are strengthened individually with additional steps of exposure. The multi-step exposure is integrated into the already efficient materials printing order of multi-material PSL process. Curing depth and overcure of photocurable resins are modeled and characterized. Exposure required to achieve sufficient interfacial bonding of single-material interfaces built through material-exchange process and multi-material interfaces with altering materials printing order is determined with tensile tests. Microfluidic channels are used to compare fabrication accuracy of traditional single-step exposure and our multi-step exposure method. This method can be widely applied in multi-material PSL to improve fabrication accuracy in a variety of applications including microfluidic devices.
... 55 Another UVcurable hydrogel, silk fibroin (Sil-MA), was also found to be compatible with the DLP-assisted 3D bioprinting technique ensuring the development of complex models like the brain. 93 Natural biomaterials like gelatin can be synthetically changed to achieve control over the biochemical and mechanical properties of the construct, such as degradation and gelation time. 15 GelMA, which is formed with the interaction between gelatin and methacrylic anhydride (MAA), has drawn great attention lately due to its enzymatic degradability and biocompatibility. ...
Primary brain tumor is one of the most fatal diseases. The most malignant type among them, glioblastoma (GBM), has low survival rates. Standard treatments reduce the life quality of patients due to serious side effects. Tumor aggressiveness and the unique structure of the brain render the removal of tumors and the development of new therapies challenging. To elucidate the characteristics of brain tumors and examine their response to drugs, realistic systems that mimic the tumor environment and cellular crosstalk are desperately needed. In the past decade, 3D GBM models have been presented as excellent platforms as they allowed the investigation of the phenotypes of GBM and testing innovative therapeutic strategies. In that scope, 3D bioprinting technology offers utilities such as fabricating realistic 3D bioprinted structures in a layer-by-layer manner and precisely controlled deposition of materials and cells, and they can be integrated with other technologies like the microfluidics approach. This Review covers studies that investigated 3D bioprinted brain tumor models, especially GBM using 3D bioprinting techniques and essential parameters that affect the result and quality of the study like frequently used cells, the type and physical characteristics of hydrogel, bioprinting conditions, cross-linking methods, and characterization techniques.
... However, the objects created in this way can be less accurate due to the lack of precise parameters, and high mesh resolution can place high demands on computer hardware [12]. Among the various 3D printing techniques, vat photopolymerization processes (3D resin printing) like stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), or liquid crystal display (LCD) mask printing are rather suitable for incorporating surface texture since their resolution is high enough to accurately reproduce features of well under 100 µm at a reasonable cost [13]. ...
Displacement mapping is a computer graphics technique that enables the design of components with regularly or randomly textured surfaces that can be quickly materialized on a three-dimensional (3D) printer when needed. This approach is, in principle, more flexible, faster, and more economical compared to conventional texturing methods, but the accuracy of the texture depends heavily on the parameters used. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how to produce a surface-textured part using polygonal (mesh) modeling software and a photopolymerizable resin and to develop a universal methodology to predict the dimensional accuracy of the model file log combined with a resin 3D printer. The printed components were characterized on a scanning confocal microscope. In the setup used in this study, the mesh size had to be reduced to 10% of the smallest feature size, and the textured layer had to be heavily (×4.5) overexposed to achieve the desired accuracy. As a practical application, two functional stamps with a regular (honeycomb) and a random texture, respectively, were successfully manufactured. The insights gained will be of great benefit for quickly and cost-effectively producing components with innovative patterns and textures for a variety of hobby, industrial, and biomedical applications.
... Both technologies have good printing capabilities and are compatible with commercially available soluble polymer materials from third-party sources. Furthermore, DLP printing offers distinct advantages over FFF due to its higher printing resolution [14,15] as well as better surface quality and details achieved in the micro scale [16]. ...
There is a need to cost-effectively produce polymer components with meso/micro-scale internal geometries with high replication accuracy without the use of post-processing steps. A possible process chain to produce such polymer components with internal hollow features is by combining the 3D printing (3DP) and micro-injection moulding (MIM) processes. To date, no studies were carried out to explore the feasibility of such a process chain. Consequently, this experimental study investigated the use of the 3DP lost-cores that are over-moulded using the MIM process. The first step involved the production of lost-core from a soluble polymer material where three different materials were studied: two filament-based materials (Xioneer VXL130 and AquaSys180) and one resin-based material (IM-HDT-WS). The filament-based materials were printed on an Ultimaker S5 (filament fused fabrication) and the resin-based material was printed using an Asiga Max X27 (digital light processing). In the second step, the lost core was then over-moulded with polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) using the MIM process. After demoulding, the internal core was then dissolved using the respective dissolution method of each material to achieve a part with meso/micro scale internal features. Investigations carried out at the different stages of the process chain revealed that the best dimensional accuracy was achieved when using the IM-HDT-WS material in the 3DP of the lost-cores and their subsequent over-moulding to form the case study part internal geometry. In particular, the dimensional analysis of the replicated IM-HDT-WS lost-core geometries onto the over-moulded PMMA revealed a difference of 0% in diameter and − 3.17% in bifurcation angle of the Y1.6 channel and a difference of + 4.88% in diameter and + 11.48% in bifurcation angle of the Y0.8 channels when compared to the respective 3DP core dimensional values prior to encapsulation. However, dissolution tests revealed that the filament-based material, the Xioneer VXL130, achieved a dissolution rate of 3.5 and 4.5 h for the Y1.6 and Y0.8 channel, respectively, which was marginally faster than that of the IM-HDT-WS.
... These benefits have given rise to various 3D printing techniques, with the choice depending on the specifications and applications of the end product. Techniques like fused deposition modeling, [19][20][21] 3D bioprinting, 12,[22][23][24][25] and stereolithography [26][27][28] have been applied to develop in vitro cancer models. ...
... A pattern is then cured within this second layer, ensuring strong adherence to the first layer due to the slightly greater depth of curing compared to the platform step height. [26][27][28] III. 3D-PRINTED IN VITRO CANCER MODELS A. Pancreas cancer model Table I summarizes the 3D-printed in vitro cancer models and the applied 3D printing techniques, materials, and cells. ...
3D printing techniques allow for the precise placement of living cells, biological substances, and biochemical components, establishing themselves as a promising approach in bioengineering. Recently, 3D printing has been applied to develop human-relevant in vitro cancer models with highly controlled complexity and as a potential method for drug screening and disease modeling. Compared to 2D culture, 3D-printed in vitro cancer models more closely replicate the in vivo microenvironment. Additionally, they offer a reduction in the complexity and ethical issues associated with using in vivo animal models. This focused review discusses the relevance of 3D printing technologies and the applied cells and materials used in cutting-edge in vitro cancer models and microfluidic device systems. Future prospective solutions were discussed to establish 3D-printed in vitro models as reliable tools for drug screening and understanding cancer disease mechanisms.
... It is worth noting that the cost of 3D printing increases significantly with the miniaturization and complexity of microchannels structures. Additionally, the availability of suitable photosensitive resin for 3D printing is still limited, indicating that 3D printing technology is in its infancy yet [70,92]. ...
... (e) 3D printing. Reproduced from[70]. © The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd CC BY 4.0. ...
In the last three decades, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have shown a significant increase from various sources. To address this pressing issue, the importance of reducing CO2 emissions has grown, leading to increased attention toward carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) strategies. Among these strategies, monodisperse microcapsules, produced using droplet microfluidics, have emerged as promising tools for carbon capture, offering a potential solution to mitigate CO2 emissions. However, the limited yield of microcapsules due to the inherent low flow rate in droplet microfluidics remains a challenge. In this comprehensive review, the high-throughput production of carbon capture microcapsules using droplet microfluidics is focused on. Specifically, the detailed insights into microfluidic chip fabrication technologies, the microfluidic generation of emulsion droplets, along with the associated hydrodynamic considerations, and the generation of carbon capture microcapsules through droplet microfluidics are provided. This review highlights the substantial potential of droplet microfluidics as a promising technique for large-scale carbon capture microcapsule production, which could play a significant role in achieving carbon neutralization and emission reduction goals.
... Unlike SLA and TPL, one-photon micro-stereolithography (OμSL) is a one-photon lithography technique that permits iterative polymerization in all corresponding regions upon UV light interaction with the photoresist, incorporating both high-resolution and high-speed advantages [27][28][29][30] . By positioning a high-precision reduction lens between the projector and the resin tank, the resolution is finely modulated to the desired levels. ...
The applications of silica-based glass have evolved alongside human civilization for thousands of years. High-precision manufacturing of three-dimensional (3D) fused silica glass objects is required in various industries, ranging from everyday life to cutting-edge fields. Advanced 3D printing technologies have emerged as a potent tool for fabricating arbitrary glass objects with ultimate freedom and precision. Stereolithography and femtosecond laser direct writing respectively achieved their resolutions of ~50 μm and ~100 nm. However, fabricating glass structures with centimeter dimensions and sub-micron features remains challenging. Presented here, our study effectively bridges the gap through engineering suitable materials and utilizing one-photon micro-stereolithography (OμSL)-based 3D printing, which flexibly creates transparent and high-performance fused silica glass components with complex, 3D sub-micron architectures. Comprehensive characterizations confirm that the final material is stoichiometrically pure silica with high quality, defect-free morphology, and excellent optical properties. Homogeneous volumetric shrinkage further facilitates the smallest voxel, reducing the size from 2.0 × 2.0 × 1.0 μm³ to 0.8 × 0.8 × 0.5 μm³. This approach can be used to produce fused silica glass components with various 3D geometries featuring sub-micron details and millimetric dimensions. This showcases promising prospects in diverse fields, including micro-optics, microfluidics, mechanical metamaterials, and engineered surfaces.
