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Passive thermal management systems using phase change materials (PCMs) provides an effective solution to the overheating of lithium ion batteries. But this study shows heat accumulation in PCMs caused by the inefficient cooling of air natural convection leads to thermal management system failures: The temperature in a battery pack operating continu...
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... the convective heat transfer coefficient a is a tough task, so we undertook a preliminary CFD study with commercial software Fluent 6.3 to determine a in average. Battery pack was simplified to six walls with a constant temperature of 42 °C (phase change temperature), over which air flowed at different rates, as shown in Fig. 2. Heat transfer between the six surfaces and air was simulated, and heat transfer coefficients at different air flow- rates are listed in Table 4. After assigning initial conditions and boundary conditions, battery model and PCM model were solved simultaneously by Fluent 6.3. ...
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Citations
... A. Keyhani-Asl et al. of the battery is 15 • C to 35 • C [50] or 20 • C to 40 • C [51][52][53], 20 • C to 50 • C [54,55]. Also, the maximum temperature difference (ΔT max ) among modules should be <5 • C to maintain a uniform temperature distribution [6,52,53]. ...
... In contrast to different studies that ignore the second term of eq. 2 (reversible part of the Bernardi model) or assume constant heat generation, various investigations have been carried out to develop models based on the temperature, state of charge (SOC), and depth of discharge (DOD), to model LIB in a more realistic way [55,[79][80][81][82]. In addition, some investigations [83][84][85] highlighted that the axial and radial thermal conductivity of the cylindrical lithium battery are not the same due to material composition differences in various directions. ...
... E for charge and discharge of a 18,650 Li-ion battery is defined as follows based on an experimental investigation by Ling et al. [55]: As shown in Fig. 6 and according to the mentioned models, the heat generation rate is found to be varied during the discharge (left side of Fig. 6) and charge (right side of Fig. 6). Also, charging process involves constant current (C -C) and constant voltage (C -V) stages. ...
The optimization of performance, safety, and longevity in electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EV/HEV) necessitates the implementation of efficient battery thermal management systems. In order to accomplish this objective, it is necessary to implement practical Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) to regulate fluctuations in temperature and maintain a desired temperature range and distribution. Porous media and foams have been identified as viable approaches to tackle the aforementioned issues in thermal management systems effectively. The primary objective of this review paper is to provide an analysis of the developments, trends, and limitations pertaining to the utilization of porous medium and foam in BTMS. The underlying mechanisms and benefits associated with the utilization of porous media have been investigated with a particular focus on their influence on improving and optimizing heat transfer within BTMS. The paper analyzes a variety of porous media and foam structures, materials, manufacturing methods, and numerical modeling. Among the different properties of the porous media, porosity was found to have the most impact on BTMS performance and lower porosity leads to better heat transfer and lower maximum temperature (Tmax) and maximum temperature difference (ΔTmax). Also, the permeability of the foam needs to be optimized to keep a balance between the reduction of Tmax and any possible increase of ΔTmax. Porous media commonly employed in BTMS consist of carbon and metal-based foams, with copper foam being particularly significant owing to its superior thermal conductivity. Considering the dynamic nature of heat generation in lithium-ion batteries, Darcy-Brinkman-Forchheimer (DBF) and Local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE) were found to be accurate for numerical simulations of porous media in BTMS. Furthermore, it has been underscored that further experimental and numerical investigations, as well as optimization analyses, are crucial for optimizing the thermal management systems of electric and hybrid electric vehicle batteries and maximizing the potential of porous media and foam. This paper concludes by proposing potential future research paths to highlight unexplored areas of research.
... Liquid cooling with mostly water as coolant due to excellent thermo-physical properties. [33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] However, liquid cooling systems increase additional weight and suffer from leakage and the increased manufacturing costs from liquid coolant complex circulation systems. BTMSs have also been classified as active and passive systems-based energy consumption. ...
... While significantly reducing the temperature difference, PCMs do not consume additional energy. 36 The essential function of a good PCM is to store thermal energy in sensible and latent forms for meeting demand in non-available periods commonly found in storage systems of renewable sources. The use of PCMs is wellestablished in the areas of solar energy, heat recovery, buildings, and so forth. ...
Electric mobility decarbonizes the transportation sector and effectively addresses sustainable development goals. A good battery thermal management system (BTMS) is essential for the safe working of electric vehicles with lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) to address thermal runaway and associated catastrophic hazards effectively. However, PCMs suffer from low thermal conductivity issues, and hence, enhancement techniques include the use of fins, nano‐additives, extended graphite powder, and so forth. The use of composite phase change materials effectively addresses LIB thermal management widely used in electric vehicles while mitigating thermal runaway, besides providing flame retardancy, thermal/mechanical stability, and electrical insulation, and preventing leakage. It is noted that no single strategy of BTMS is brought down to a safe zone of temperature, and hybrid BTMSs are being employed, invariably involve phase change materials (PCMs) to a large extent. It is essential to utilize CPCMs to address the effects of low‐temperature environments and vibrations considering vehicle driving cycles and operating conditions. It is observed from the review that ultrasonic monitoring and early detection of internal short circuits are the steps towards mitigation of thermal runaway propagation. It is required to utilize optimization methods, machine learning and IoT tools for a feasible PCM based BTMS work. Present review briefly describes potential methods for effective utilization of PCMs, comparison among different methods, challenges associated and potential solutions. It is highly essential to develop compact and economical BTMS with effective CPCMs for better and safer LIB operation to attract large‐scale commercialization of electric vehicles.
... Researchers have also investigated the use of integrated heat network systems combining additional active cooling techniques like liquid cooling [24], forced air cooling [25], nanofluids [26,27], etc. Yang et al. [28] proposed a novel efficient bionic mini-cooling and PCM-based BTMS. It was shown that the nature-inspired hexagonal shape of the BTMS proved to be better than rectangular systems. ...
... The utilisation of PCM in battery applications has been extensively documented in academic research works. These studies have thoroughly examined the employment of PCMs both independently and in conjunction with liquid and air active cooling systems to regulate the operating temperatures of batteries [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. The internal temperature control of LIB cells has also found use for PCM as a battery separator component [25]. ...
passive thermal management of lithium-ion batteries is demonstrated in this study. The aim of this research is to assess the effectiveness of CPPF when utilised as a constituent substance in PCM/Foam composites. Six distinct configurations of PCM/Foam composites are presented in this work using 10-pore-per-inch foam. A total of four deposition foam samples were produced. Of these, three were created by gradually increasing the immersion time in an electroless copper plating solution. For the fourth sample, an electroless plating technique was utilised for 80 min, followed by an electroplating procedure to deposit an additional layer of copper. The evaluation entails examining each plated sample in comparison to a copper foam that is commercially available with a purity level of 99.99 %. The findings reveal that the electroless-plated specimens exhibit improved effectiveness after being subjected to a prolonged plating period of 80 min. The electroplated sample exhibited the greatest degree of effectiveness, as evidenced by a 64.4 % reduction in battery cell surface temperature(10.98 • C), which is almost identical to the 64.5 % decrease in temperature (11.03 • C) observed with commercial foam but coupled with 88.1 % decrease in mass. The results suggest that the CPPF-PCM composites offer effective passive cooling properties for batteries.
... Currently, the prevalent heat storage approaches primarily comprise of sensible heat storage [1,2], latent heat storage [3,4], and thermochemical heat storage [5,6]. Sensible heat storage technology is considerably advanced but faces two significant challenges: low heat storage density [4,7] and unsteady heat release temperature [8,9]. ...
... Currently, the prevalent heat storage approaches primarily comprise of sensible heat storage [1,2], latent heat storage [3,4], and thermochemical heat storage [5,6]. Sensible heat storage technology is considerably advanced but faces two significant challenges: low heat storage density [4,7] and unsteady heat release temperature [8,9]. Thermochemical offers high heat storage density [10] and significant application potential [11,12], yet it involves intricate chemical reactions [13,14], demanding application procedures [15], and energy storage materials that often corrode equipment [16,17]. ...
... where λ pcmce , λ w and λ pcmc are thermal conductivity of PCMC, water and emulsion, respectively, W⋅m − 1 ⋅K − 1 ; ϕ denotes the volume fraction of PCMC in the emulsion,%. Additionally, thermal conductivity of emulsion is predicted by a custom model, considering the characteristics of each PCMC component, including the number of dispersed phases, coreshell ratio, etc., as illustrated in Eq. (4). ...
Both internal encapsulation and external added nanoparticles have been employed in this study to enhance thermal conductivity and explore the corresponding heat transfer characteristics. Specifically, the correlation between thermal conductivity and capsule, nanoparticle content, as well as the enhanced heat transfer/thermal energy storage performance facilitated by internal encapsulation are demonstrated through numerical and experimental study. Furthermore, it compares key parameters like heat transfer and pressure drop, providing quantifiable evidence that the addition of nanoparticles, whether internally or externally, leads to an increase of thermal conductivity by 6.63 %/2.75 % (5 wt%) and 5.92 %/4.26 % (10 wt%), respectively. Internal encap-sulation was observed to yield a more substantial enhancement in heat transfer. Moreover, higher capsule concentrations tend to induce an inverted concentration profile near the heat exchange wall, particularly at higher flow rates. Furthermore, encapsulating nanoparticles within these capsules enhances heat transfer performance , with the level of enhancement scaling with the nanoparticle quantity. Increasing the flow rate of emulsion from 0.4 m⋅s − 1 to 0.6 m⋅s − 1 in a horizontal tube resulted in a 26.67 % increase in heat transfer and a 41.55 % increase in pressure drop. As a result of the disturbed heating, thermal fluctuations of external addition showed more pronounced thermal fluctuations due to disrupted heating, while a internal encapsulation exhibited a more stable temperature distribution and superior heat storage performance.
... Heat pipes are becoming widely adopted in electronic cooling applications owing to their small form factor and exceptional thermal conductivity. Similarly, phase change material (PCM) has surfaced as a novel solution within today's thermal management systems (TMSs) [60][61][62]. The greatest appeal for implementing PCM is that cell temperature is curbed within a safe, narrow temperature range, which is dictated by the PCM's melting point temperature. ...
As the adaptation of lithium (Li) ion batteries (LIBs) in energy storage systems is becoming more prevalent by the day, the issue of safe and environmentally responsible design, installation, and operation of these batteries is posing a rapidly growing challenge. It is imperative to develop realistic multi-physics and multi-scale models that are useful not only for analyzing the thermal runaway (TR) events at the single-cell level but also for modular LIB designs. This needs to be accompanied by the development of easier-to-follow empirical rules and straightforward analytical models as our knowledge of TR events grows over time. The unpredictable nature of TR events and the grave fire and explosion dangers that are particularly associated with violent TR events at the modular level require employing large-scale real-time evaluation of these events as well. Although more innovative battery health indicators are being developed and employed, it is still very challenging to arrest catastrophic TR events in time. The review herein seeks to explore advanced modeling and experimental approaches holistically. The challenges and possibilities of different active and passive thermal management strategies are also critically elaborated for LIB modular designs.
... These lead to employing an aggregate of PCMs with active methods which is called a hybrid system. In a hybrid system, the active mode usually carries out the cooling of the PCM and the latent heat of the PCM (passive mode) plays a crucial role in thermal management [108]. A hybrid system has a significant effect on temperature homogeneity and depletion of maximum temperature [29]. ...
The utilization of beneficial energy storage systems, such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), has garnered significant attention worldwide due to the increasing energy consumption globally. In order to guarantee the safety and reliable performance of these batteries, it is vital to design a suitable battery thermal management system
(BTMS). Among all the suggested methods, phase transition applications have shown great potential for controlling the thermal behavior of LIBs. Moreover, in recent years, hybrid battery thermal management systems (HBTMSs) with the combination of two or more active/passive methods have been introduced to either take advantage of the benefits of individual methods or reduce their disadvantages. These hybrid cooling systems result in a more efficient BTMS in comparison to a basic one, especially in severe conditions. The current study comprehensively reviews all kinds of phase transition-embedded HBTMSs, including at least one phase transition process integrated with other passive/active methods. In this regard, the combination of phase change materials (PCMs), different types of enhanced-PCMs, heat pipes (HPs), and boiling cooling with other BTMSs are thoroughly discussed. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of various HBTMSs have been evaluated and summarized in each section. The categorized information and prospects can be utilized for designing costeffective,
high-efficiency, and more environmentally friendly HBTMSs.
... Ling et al. [38] (2015) investigated experimentally a hybrid system that combines a passive cooling system represented by phase change material with an active cooling system such as forced air convection. In all cycles, this combination system reliably limited heat generation inside batteries and maintained maximum temperature below 50 o C. According to research on airflow effects, the thermo-physical parameters of phase change material control the maximum temperature rise and temperature uniformity in the battery pack, while forced air convection plays a vital role in recovering the thermal energy storage capacity of phase change material. ...
Lithium-ion batteries' physical properties classify them as one of the most important sources of clean energy that overcome the need for fuel usage. The rated operating temperature and its uniformity are of the main demands of Lithium-ion batteries. In this survey, several types of studies have been reviewed with the aim of understanding the thermal management systems used to control the temperature of lithium-ion batteries and their uniformity in the battery pack. They are represented by active and passive systems, as well as the hybrid system, which integrates each of the two mentioned systems into a system to obtain the best thermal performance. Active cooling systems were classified due to the type pf coolant used to air and liquid system, meanwhile passive system classified to PCM and heat pipe system. The survey reveals that the air-cooling of lithium-ion battery pack is better than the use of liquids. About 74% of the reviewed works prefer the use of active strategies. The working temperature under normal conditions should be within -20 to 60 °C, meanwhile the optimum range is 15 to 35 °C. The maximum temperature difference between batteries in the pack is preferred to be 5 °C or less.
... Currently, researches on the thermal management system of lithiumion battery primarily focus on air cooling [8,9], liquid cooling [10,11], heat pipe cooling [12,13] and phase change material (PCM) cooling [14,15]. Air cooling has been applied maturely due to its straightforward design and economical price, but it also has the drawbacks of large volume, high energy consumption and low efficiency [16]. ...
... The LFP (Lithium Ferrophosphate) batteries, which belong to the lithium-ion battery type, are preferred because they have low cost, high cycle life, and high specific power. However, their high discharge current brings the problem of unstable aging [10]. ...
... Temperatures above 30 °C are considered a problem for lithium-ion batteries as they cause thermal degradation of the electrode and electrolyte [13]. Aging is much more accelerated at high temperatures [10]. ...
... The operating temperature of a lithium-ion battery should be in the range of 20 °C to 40 °C, while the temperature difference within a battery or from module to module should not be more than 5 °C [14]. The temperature difference between the ambient temperature and the internal temperature of the battery and the temperature difference between the batteries inside the module are important parameters to be considered as they can negatively affect the performance, reliability, and safety of the batteries [10]. Uniform temperature distribution in the module is crucial for effective cooling performance, as a temperature variation of about 10 °C to 15 °C in the module can cause 30-50 % degradation in power capacity [15]. ...
Energy storage systems enable the storage of energy and provide access to carbon-neutral, environmentally friendly energy whenever or wherever it is needed. Lithium-ion batteries are currently the most preferred type among various battery technologies and are widely used in energy storage systems. Some of the features that make lithium-ion batteries advantageous include high energy density, long life, low maintenance requirements, and high operating voltage. The growing demand for energy throughout the day increases the need for batteries with high storage capacity. However, the increased capacity also leads to heating issues in lithium-ion batteries. The heating problem in lithium-ion batteries can result in nonhomogeneous temperature distribution, shortened lifespan, thermal runaway, increased internal resistance, and performance loss. Therefore, an effective thermal management system is essential for cooling lithium-ion batteries. This study aims to provide insight into the forced air cooling of prismatic 280 Ah LiFePo4 batteries, which have limited information in the literature and are more prone to overheating compared to lower-capacity batteries. In this study, five different battery pack case designs, each with different sizes and numbers of air intake holes, were determined and modelled using the SolidWorks program. Within the battery pack cases, 16 280 Ah lithium-ion batteries are placed, and an axial fan is used to cool these batteries. Initially, computational fluid dynamics analyses of the five different designs were performed in the SolidWorks Flow Simulation program. An experiment was then conducted on the design that provided the most efficient thermal management to validate the numerical results. The selected design, fulfilling the purpose of homogeneous temperature distribution and having the minimum temperature difference between batteries, was designated as Design 5. It exhibited a 62 % improvement in cooling performance with a 0.25 °C temperature difference, indicating successful temperature homogeneity between batteries. During a two-hour experiment with a 140 A discharge current, temperature measurements were taken from the surfaces of the batteries using thermocouples. Finally, the maximum error rate between experimental and numerical studies was determined to be 1.47 %, indicating successful validation of the numerical study. The air intake hole optimization, a novel design approach, prevents temperature distribution inhomogeneity caused by the distance of the batteries to the fan and offers an effective way to cool down high-capacity 280 Ah batteries.
