Table 2 - uploaded by Miguel Angel Lopez Zavala
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Northeastern Mexico is a semiarid region with water scarcity and a strong pressure on water sources caused by the rapid increase of population and industrialization. In this region, rainwater harvesting alone is not enough to meet water supply demands due to the irregular distribution of rainfall in time and space. Thus, in this study the reliabili...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... high frequency of showering, compared with other countries, is caused by the climate of Monterrey, where temperatures greater than 30 ˝ C occur from April to October, with periods exceeding 40 ˝ C in summer. Based on these results, and on the volumetric measurements of appliance discharges, the greywater generation rates were calculated for a confidence interval with a significance level of 95% (Table 2). As can be seen, the men generated 43,457 L/day, meanwhile the women 13,492 L/day, totaling 56,948 L/day. ...
Context 2
... high frequency of showering, compared with other countries, is caused by the climate of Monterrey, where temperatures greater than 30 °C occur from April to October, with periods exceeding 40 °C in summer. Based on these results, and on the volumetric measurements of appliance discharges, the greywater generation rates were calculated for a confidence interval with a significance level of 95% (Table 2). As can be seen, the men generated 43,457 L/day, meanwhile the women 13,492 L/day, totaling 56,948 L/day. ...
Citations
... There are many studies and articles related to the topic of minimizing tap water consumption in buildings, but they usually refer only to a selected issue. These works concern the following: ways and methods of minimizing water consumption, i.e., [8], selected devices generating water consumption (for instance, dishwashers [9,10]), or activities aimed at minimizing the consumption of tap water, such as the use of rainwater or gray water, e.g., [11][12][13], and introducing circular water management [14]. There are also works analyzing a section of the issue of reducing tap water consumption in a selected aspect. ...
Progressive climate changes, drought resulting from them and the prospect of problems with access to water for people in cities mean that actions are being taken to minimize water use in buildings and to implement a circular economy in the water and wastewater sector. Within the water circular economy model, there is also a stage of “water consumption”. Minimizing water use in buildings undoubtedly has a number of advantages. However, it should be borne in mind that it may also have weaknesses, and if implemented on a large scale, it may be associated with certain threats. For these reasons, the aim of this paper is to critically analyze the possible directions of water management in buildings in order to reduce water consumption and increase the efficiency of its use. As part of the introduction, the model “towards a water circular economy for households” is presented and the possibilities of minimizing water consumption in buildings are discussed. The prospects for reducing the consumption of tap water are discussed in terms of existing opportunities, but also threats, barriers and limitations. A SWOT analysis of the implementation of drinking-water consumption reduction in cities is presented. The challenges faced by engineers, constructors, policy makers and consumers, and the potentialities for the development of this stage of the water life cycle, are considered. The conclusions summarize the current state and perspectives of water management in buildings. Based on the conducted analysis, suggested directions of activities for cities of the future in the technical, technological as well as socio-economic fields are indicated. There should be broad-based education, and efforts should be made to change the approach to designing and developing new guidelines. The implementation of minimizing water consumption should be accompanied by the control of possible negative effects and actions to mitigate them. In the transformation towards clean and available energy, future success should be seen in minimizing the consumption of drinking water in buildings.
... Implementation of multiple adaptations across the categories of water supply augmentation, water demand reduction, and water efficiency and management can improve response more effectively and practically than a single adaptation (Haidera et al., 2011;Hao et al., 2015). For example, the implementation of rainwater harvesting alongside greywater reuse has been found to reduce wastewater generation by 59 % (López Zavala et al., 2016) and meet up to 74 % of total water demands , synergistically improving resilience against additional or exacerbated risks that may threaten water security. Integrated approaches can take the form of IWRM strategies to jointly address water supply, wastewater, and stormwater systems (Dörendahl and Aich, 2021). ...
... Several methods are available for water supply systems that provide drinking water to increase their water sustainability and energy efficiency. One is the reduction of water consumption on the consumer side via a multitude of possibilities, such as the implementation of rainwater harvesting systems and grey-water reuse [11], the introduction of usage restrictions [12], the use of price policy [12], the installation of water and energy-efficient appliances [13,14], among many others. Sustainable solutions can also be achieved by acting on the water distribution network (WDN). ...
Sustainable use of water and energy sources is a crucial challenge for smart and resilient urban water infrastructure. At this aim, this study presents a methodology for implementing and selecting pumps-as-turbines (PaTs) in water distribution networks (WDNs) to minimise leakage losses and maximise energy recovery. A novel dynamic control algorithm for PaTs is proposed, which optimises the pressure dissipation while granting a minimum pressure head in the network. The digital hydraulic model of a WDN, which incorporates the developed control strategy, outputs the available pressure heads and flow rates of each PaT for an extended period simulation. The entire simulated data series are fed into a new algorithm to select the best machine to be installed to achieve a reliable solution under realistic and varying conditions. Finally, this methodology is applied to a real test case, improving the sustainability and energy efficiency of a mountainous WDN by enhancing the water-energy nexus.
... In particular, the implementation of both RWH and GWR systems can reduce the demand for potable water. In addition, RWH systems can contribute to a reduction in the volume and intensity of rainwater runoff (Zhang et al. 2009(Zhang et al. , 2010Zanni et al. 2019), while GWR systems reduce the amount of sewage channeled to treatment plants by collecting greywater (domestic wastewater that does not contain significant amounts of feces or other contaminants) for processing and use in specific applications (Penn et al. 2013;López Zavala et al. 2016;Marinoski & Ghisi 2019;Zhang et al. 2021). ...
... Rainwater was harvested exclusively from roofs, with areas ranging from 20 to 100,000 m 2 (Supplementary Material, Table S1), except in the study of López Zavala et al. (2016), where water was collected from a catchment area that included roofs, terraces, and parking lots, with a total area of 65,768.75 m 2 . ...
... m 2 . It is important to note here that López Zavala et al. (2016) used the term 'stormwater' which is distinguished from 'rainwater' (which is collected exclusively from rooftops) due to inclusion of the runoff from all the permeable and impermeable surfaces within the drainage system (Sapkota et al. 2015). ...
Combined, decentralized systems for rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse may enhance the water security of urban areas by reducing dependence on the main water supply, in particular during critical periods, such as the dry season. They can also minimize the risk of flooding during the rainy season. The present study assesses the accumulated knowledge of these combined systems based on a systematic review of the literature restricted to academic sources. The review revealed knowledge gaps that must be resolved to better assess the optimum combination of rainwater and greywater recovery, how this affects the need for the treatment of the recovered water, its final quality, potential options for reuse, water economy, and the environmental and economic performance of the system. Further empirical studies are required to determine the most adequate design configuration for these systems, considering their multiple objectives, technological perspectives, and in particular, their potential for improving environmental shortcomings. There is a clear need for widespread use of low-impact technologies to ensure the most effective possible results. Water recovery systems will become increasingly important as a means of tackling the challenges of water supplies in the urban landscape, which are being exacerbated by climate change.
... The typical graywater volume varies between 60 L and 120 L/person/day, although it differs depending on user behavior, population structure, customs and habits, Frontiers in Environmental Science frontiersin.org 03 plumbing, and water availability (Zavala et al., 2016). The use of treated graywater includes indoor reuse such as flush toilets and outdoor reuse such as garden irrigation and car washing. ...
... However, it is seen that both reuse strategies, applied separately or combined, will denote economic feasibility if the investments are amortized in shorter periods like 10 years or less. In a university campus in Northeastern Mexico where both strategies are practiced, the amortization period is found to be 6 years (Zavala et al., 2016). India is a country that experiences water shortage on the contrary to its rapidly growing population. ...
This study presents the payback periods of applying rainwater harvesting (RWH) and/or graywater reuse (GWR) systems as alternative water resources in different building typologies, such as a hospital, shopping mall, and hotel. These buildings are under operation in the Antalya Province of Türkiye, which is a large city having the densest tourism activities. The significance of the work performed through the cost-benefit analyses for the selected case studies basically lies on the water savings while serving to four of the sustainable development goals, namely, clean water and sanitation, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, and climate action. These efforts may be considered valuable urban-based solutions toward climate change effects. Thorough surveys on the existing selected typologies are conducted regarding their water consumption and probable water savings via reuse activities. As-built plumbing projects and plans are also investigated during the accomplishment of the comprehensive design work leading to the calculation of the total investment and operation costs of the rainwater harvesting and graywater reuse practices. The up-to-date prices are used in monetary terms, and euro currency is used to make the results more meaningful by the interested parties. All the selected typologies undergo cost-benefit analysis for both of the alternative water reuse systems. The payback periods are calculated as 6, 2, and 9 years for RWH and as 5, 6, and 9 years for GWR for the hospital, shopping mall, and the hotel, respectively. The water savings for RWH varied between 20% and 50% whereas for GWR, the range was 48%–99%. Both of the systems are performed for the shopping mall simultaneously, and the resulting payback period is found to be 5 years, and water saving reached 72%. Recent information on the amortization periods in the literature states that less than a decade demonstrates achievable and highly acceptable applications. As such, the design attempts in this study also correlated with these findings. However, feasibility of these practices may be increased by encouraging the public on their utility and benefit of water savings. As is the case in many of the developed countries, incentives like tax reductions and even exemptions may be realized to achieve better applicability of these alternative technologies.
... The most common problem in recent decades in urban hydrology is the increase in the amount of rainwater directed to drainage systems, which results in the malfunctioning of the city's drainage infrastructure. The most frequently indicated factors affecting the current state of urban water management include the increasing frequency of extreme rainfall events [1][2][3], depletion of biologically active areas [4,5], waste of rainwater potential [6,7] or even the nonprospective development of urban agglomerations [8,9]. As a consequence, this leads to a disturbance of the natural water circulation in nature, resulting in an increase in rainwater runoff, leading to urban floods and droughts is a significant and important problem. ...
The article contains the results of the first part of the research on the analysis of the operation of the retention device cooperating with the drainage system—steerable detention tank and concerns model simulation studies. The obtained results are an introduction to conducting laboratory tests. The planned research was carried out on the basis of the theory of experimental planning and hydrodynamic modelling, in which the systems of hydraulic parameters of the drainage system and hydrological of the catchment were selected. In total, over a thousand hydrodynamic simulations were carried out using SWMM 5.1. The planned analyses had two main goals. Firstly, to verify the possibility of reducing the rainwater volume flow in the drainage system by means of controllable devices enabling cooperation with the drainage system in various hydraulic conditions of the drainage system. Secondly, determining the impact of the connection method (parallel or serial) of the device enabling retention and cooperation with the sewage system on the efficiency of the system. The conducted analyses showed that the use of a retention device cooperating with the drainage system may significantly reduce the amount of sewage outfall from system, depending on the capacity of a single micro-accumulator, even up to 83% (in the analysed data range). It was also shown that the method of connecting the device to the network has an influence on the efficiency of the system in depend on hydraulic conditions.
... No nordeste do México, devido ao aumento populacional e a industrialização local, a busca por projetos de captação de águas pluviais é eminentemente recorrente, pois se trata de uma região semiárida com escassez de água. Em complementação, ressalta-se que a adoção de outras fontes alternativas de suprimento de água é frequentemente considerada pelos habitantes da região visando a redução ainda maior do tempo de retorno dos investimentos [5]. ...
Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a viabilidade econômica da implantação do Sistema de Aproveitamento de Água Pluvial (SAAP) em diferentes regiões do Brasil. Para o dimensionamento dos reservatórios considerou-se o método de cálculo de balanços hídricos e a metodologia Yield After Spillage (YAS), que consiste em considerar o consumo depois do enchimento do reservatório, além de critérios de projeto conforme [1]. Comparando-se consumos e custos avaliou-se a viabilidade econômica para os cenários. Concluiu-se que, quanto maior a demanda de água pluvial, menor o tempo de retorno para recuperação do investimento aplicado na implantação do SAAP.
... The water has low strength, high volume and high reuse potential and its composition depends on climatic conditions, fixtures and lifestyles of producers (Katukiza et al., 2015). Greywater constitutes 60-70% of total domestic water consumption although its reuse has the potential to reduce this consumption rate from 50 to 70% (López Zavala et al., 2016). A group researchers shared the same views claiming that greywater reuse is not a novelty though it has immense potential to supplement depleting resources amidst acute water shortage and climate variability conditions especially in arid areas (Oteng-Peprah et al., 2018). ...
Increased production of greywater prompted by the rise of urbanization and increased population in the industrial era is a growing environmental concern exacerbating the apparent water insecurity. Treatment and reuse of greywater is a promising solution to this problem since it will divert the use of limited freshwater resources to unavoidable consumptive uses. This study reviewed the various methods used to treat greywater and the progress made in taking up the practice in Kenya. Findings showed a variety of physicochemical treatment methods such as filtration, adsorption, coagulation and photocatalytic oxidation used to decontaminate greywater. Biological approaches such as the use of reactors and constructed wetland systems were discussed. Case study applications of the treatment approaches in Kenya to manage greywater were also highlighted. However, it was noted that appropriate policies, adequate funding and better designing of greywater treatment systems should be adopted to support the enhanced practices in Kenya.
... Couto et al. [46] have carried out a study in a Brazilian airport, where the use of greywater was sufficient to cover non-potable water demands, highlighting the potable water-saving potential. Furthermore, the studies of Ángel López Zavala et al. [47] and Zhang et al. [48] have described rainwater harvesting as an additional opportunity to generate greywater. However, this is associated with uncertainty, due to a dependence on statistical rainfall data. ...
... The options for using greywater in the most efficient way are manifold. In addition to laundry and bath sewage, the inclusion of rainwater to cover non-potable water demand is possible [47,48]. All of these recycling technologies can be key factors in getting the maximum utility out of water as a resource. ...
Decentralisation and sector coupling are becoming increasingly crucial for the decarbonisation of the energy system. Resources such as waste and water have high energy recovery potential and are required as inputs for various conversion technologies; however, waste and water have not yet been considered in sector coupling approaches but only in separate examinations. In this work, an open-source sector coupling optimisation model considering all of these resources and their utilisation is developed and applied in a test-bed in an Israeli city. Our investigations include an impact assessment of energy recovery and resource utilisation in the transition to a hydrogen economy, with regard to the inclusion of greywater and consideration of emissions. Additionally, sensitivity analyses are performed in order to assess the complexity level of energy recovery. The results demonstrate that waste and water energy recovery can provide high contributions to energy generation. Furthermore, greywater use can be vital to cover the water demands in scarcity periods, thus saving potable water and enabling the use of technology. Regarding the transition to hydrogen technologies, resource energy recovery and management have an even higher effect than in the original setup. However, without appropriate resource management, a reduction in emissions cannot be achieved. Furthermore, the sensitivity analyses indicate the existence of complex relationships between energy recovery technologies and other energy system operations
... On the other hand, Lazarova et al. [8] indicate that the annualized capital and operational cost for an MBR treatment with a capacity below 75 m 3 /d are around US$3.45/m 3 . López Zavala et al. [60] studied the economic feasibility of collecting rainwater and treating greywater as a measure to reduce water consumption. According to their calculations, the amortization of the investments is achieved after six years, for a system with a treatment level of around 90,000 m 3 per year. ...
Water scarcity is causing a great impact on the population. Rural areas are most affected by often lacking a stable water supply, being more susceptible to the impact of drought events, and with greater risk of contamination due to the lack of appropriate water treatment systems. Decentralized greywater treatment systems for water reuse in rural areas can be a powerful alternative to alleviate these impacts. However, the economic feasibility of these systems must be thoroughly evaluated. This study reports an economic analysis carried out on the viability of greywater reuse considering scenarios with light greywater or dark greywater to be treated. For this, data obtained from the assembly and monitoring of greywater treatment systems located in the north-central zone of Chile, supplemented with data obtained from the literature were used. The results showed that both scenarios are not economically viable, since the investment and operating costs are not amortized by the savings in water. In both evaluated cases (public schools), the economic indicators were less negative when treating light greywater compared with the sum of light greywater and dark greywater as the inlet water to be treated. The investment and operating costs restrict the implementation of these water reuse systems, since in the evaluation period (20 years) a return on the initial investment is not achieved. Even so, our results suggest that the best alternative to reuse greywater in small-scale decentralized systems is to treat light greywater, but it is necessary to consider a state subsidy that not only supports capital costs but also reduces operating and maintenance costs. These findings support the idea that the type of water to be treated is a factor to consider in the implementation of decentralized greywater treatment systems for the reuse of water in rural areas and can help decision-making on the design and configuration of these systems.
