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2. Graphic representation of hypothetical variations on the density and diversity of discard and loss patterns in the optimization strategy.
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The Oldowan Industrial Complex is the oldest known stone tool technology dating from around 2.6 -1.6 Mya. The lithic artifacts recovered by Mary and Louis Leakey during their 1960-1963 excavations at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania define the technology which is typically thought of as simplistic. The first new sample of lithic artifacts to be recovered fr...
Citations
... The Oldupai phonolitic originates from the Lemagrut, a volcanic cone (Hay, 1976;Leakey, 1971;Tactikos, 2005). It is conceivable that the phonolite used in Mbulu Highland derives from Oldeani since it is the Ngorongoro Crater Highland (NCH) cone nearest to the study area, about 20 km on a straight line. ...
This article reports a newly discovered Acheulean assemblage in Tanzania’s Northern Mbulu Plateau. Recent investigations in the region have documented surface scatters of artifacts spanning the Acheulean-Later Stone Age continuum. Most of these artifacts have been recovered from disturbed surface contexts, on foothills, plains, and river terraces. However, there were few areas where the Acheulean assemblages were in situ. Like at Oldupai Beds II–IV, the Acheulean of Mbulu Plateau consists of various bifacial large and small cutting tools, flaked and detached types, and nondescript forms. While at Oldupai the raw material includes quartzite and different types of lava, the Mbulu Plateau assemblage is almost exclusively quartzite. Though the focus of this report is on the Acheulean, the artifacts are found co-occurring on the surface with MSA and LSA forms and are in a surprisingly good state of preservation.
... Additionally, the wide range of materials processed in experimental studies (USOs, wood, carcasses, grasses, canes, etc.) has facilitated the recognition and description of use-wear traces, as observed in the archaeological record. The incorporation of different materials in these experiments has been driven by the information obtained from other sources, such as; topics related with the diet of living non-human primates; ethnographical documentation of hunter-gatherer populations; ecological studies; as well as other use-wear analyses (Keeley and Toth, 1981;Vincent, 1984;Sussman, 1987;Peters and O'Brien, 1994;Keeley, 1997;Cordain et al., 2000;Mercader et al., 2002;Rodman, 2002;Tactikos, 2005;Ungar et al., 2006;Van der Merwe et al., 2008;Marlowe and Berbesque, 2009;Antonio and Lee, 2010;Pontzer et al., 2012;Henry et al., 2012;Cerling et al., 2013;Lemorini et al., 2014Lemorini et al., , 2019Arr aiz et al., 2017;Motes-Rodrigo et al., 2019). This actualistic approach has allowed for a broader perspective regarding the identification and description of activities, creating analogies between experimental and archaeological materials. ...
... At the same time, early hominid diet analyses through isotopes analysis, dental morphology and dental microwear analysis, reveal a high consumption of C3 and C4 organic matter during the Early Pleistocene (Stahl et al., 1984;Lee-Thorp et al. 1994, 2012, 2012Laden and Wrangham, 2005;Van der Merwe et al., 2008;Wrangham et al., 2009;Cerling et al., 2011;Henry et al., 2012;Magill et al., 2016;Melamed et al., 2016). This data regarding the hominid diet are also supported by studies on ecology and palaeoenvironment which, in broader terms, point to diverse environments with different resource catchment areas (Sept 1986;Peters and O'Brien, 1994;Tactikos, 2005;Magill et al., 2013;Plummer and Bishop, 2016). Finally, traceological analyses are progressively adding to this data. ...
Probably, one of the biggest questions about the Acheulean is focused on the functional aspects of its lithic industry and, more specifically, its link to subsistence activities developed by hominins during the Early Stone Age. Historically, tecno-functional research on ESA techno-complex has focused on the role played by flakes and LCT in the processing of animal carcasses, but less attention has been payed to other possible activities related with subsistence and tool making. Previous traceological studies on African Lower Paleolithic lithic industries have shown the complexity of activities made with the earliest lithic tools, including not only the processing of animal carcasses, but also activities dedicated to processing wood, non-woody plants and underground storage organs (USOs). In this paper we present the use-wear results obtained from the analysis of the Early Acheulean lithic tools with potentially functional edges which are part of the lithic assemblage from the Thiongo Korongo archaeological site (TK) (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). The three main levels of the archaeological site, TKSF, TKLSC and TKLF, have been used as samples. From 466 lithic artefacts analyzed, 16 pieces present sufficient preservation of use related traces that are able to clearly identify the activities developed when compared with experimental reference collections. As a result, we have identified activities mainly related with the cutting and scraping of wood and non-woody plants, including USOs. In addition, some pieces have also presented traces indicating the processing of animal carcasses. These data provides important information about different activities developed in TK by early hominids, allowing us to make broader inferences about the different subsistence activities carried out during the Acheulean in Eastern Africa.
... Rocks used for artifact manufacture are alternatively known as lithic raw materials and occur as mineral aggregates of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary origin that are nonrenewable and spatially exhaustible over a non-geological timeframe (Kyara, 1996). Raw material characterization and sourcing through comparative study of geological specimens and artifacts (Weigand et al., 1977;Shotton and Hendry, 1979) can provide insights into stone selection and procurement strategies (Stout et al., 2005), transportation costs (Kyara, 1999), technological façonnage (Mason and Aigner, 1987), functional suitability (Ebright, 1987), anthropogenic usage (Courtenay et al., 2019), landuse behavior (Tactikos, 2005), population movements (Reimer, 2018), and social networks of trade and exchange (Lebo and Johnson, 2007). By extension, inferences may be drawn on technological, economic, ritual, and political systems in a variety of archaeological contexts (e.g., Renfrew, 1975;Flannery, 1976;Sidrys, 1976). ...
... First, it is welldocumented that raw material morphometry and mechanical properties, at and beyond Oldupai, affect the classification of artifact assemblages (Leakey, 1971;Kyara, 1999;Archer and Braun, 2010), and the behavioral interpretations gleaned from them such as the technical abilities of their makers (Jones, 1979(Jones, , 1994. Second, while previous studies on Oldupai's lithic raw materials relied on macroscopic, petrographic, and geochemical techniques, they have not comprehensively characterized quartzitic outcrops (Leakey, 1971;Stiles et al., 1974;Hay, 1976;Stiles, 1991Stiles, , 1998Jones, 1994;Leakey and Roe, 1994;Kyara, 1999;Mollel, 2002;Tactikos, 2005;Blumenschine et al., 2008;Santonja et al., 2014;McHenry and de la Torre, 2018). Most recently, Egeland et al. (2019) studied local outcrops using a portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscope for chemical characterization and a Schmidt Hammer to determine fracture predictability. ...
... Apart from this most recent study, the lack of characterization studies is unwarranted for several reasons. Most notably, research at Oldupai has been ongoing for over a century (Kent, 1978;Leakey, 1978;Hay, 1990), quartzite artifacts are ubiquitous (Leakey, 1971;Leakey and Roe, 1994), quartzite is of assumed importance based on experimental studies (Diez-Martín et al., 2011;de la Torre et al., 2013;Gurtov and Eren, 2014;Yustos et al., 2015;Byrne et al., 2016), and certain quartzitic outcrops have played a central role in discussions about hominin behavior in the Oldupai paleobasin (Leakey, 1971;Hay, 1976;Tactikos, 2005;Blumenschine et al., 2008). We previously developed a multi-scalar approach to characterize quartzites from different outcrops near Oldupai (Soto et al., 2020a), which integrates macroscopic properties, petrographic features, and chemical compositional data. ...
Oldupai Gorge is located within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in northern Tanzania along the western margin of the East African Rift System. Oldupai's sedimentary record contains inter-stratified stone tool industries associated with the Earlier, Middle, and Later Stone Age. While diachronic technological change is perceptible, the totality of locally available rocks remained largely unchanged through time. Here, thin section petrography, Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, and Electron Probe Micro Analysis were employed to characterize source lithologies in the Oldupai region. One of our goals was to determine if outcrops have rock types with unique mineral assemblages amenable for sourcing lithic artifacts. Petrographic analysis of 62 lithologic samples collected in primary and secondary positions reveal discriminatory differences. More precisely, five outcrops have quartzites with unique mineral assemblages, five outcrops have meta-granites with unique mineral assemblages, Engelosin phonolite samples are texturally and mineralogically unique, and magmatic samples recovered in secondary position may be sourced to their volcanic center. Our results demonstrate it is feasible to discriminate source materials using mineralogy, which implies that sourcing lithic artifacts is possible. For proof of concept, we assign the source/s of previously described fuchsitic quartzite artifacts from three archaeological sites at Oldupai to two nearby outcrops. Additional archaeological testing will allow researchers to glean new understandings of hominin behavior and stone procurement in the Oldupai paleobasin.
... Considering that quartz-rich rocks were widely exploited during the ESA throughout continental Africa Bunn, 1982;Chavaillon, 1976;Chazan et al., 2012;Harris et al., 1987;Howell et al., 1987;Isaac and Harris, 1978;Kaufulu and Stern, 1987;Kuman, 1996;Kuman and Field, 2009;Kuman and Clarke, 2000;McNabb and Kuman, 2015;Merrick and Merrick, 1976;Plummer, 2004;Sheppard and Kleindienst, 1996;Toth, 1982), these rock types represent an important avenue to understand early hominin technology and ecological behavior (Ambrose, 2001;Braun and Hovers, 2009;De Heinzelin et al., 1999;Potts, 1994;Schick, 1987). However, there are only a few ESA characterization studies specifically dealing with quartzite designed to establish its sourcing prospects, and most of these studies specifically deal with material from Oldupai Gorge (Blumenschine et al. 2008;Braun et al. 2008b;Hay, 1976;Kyara, 1999;McHenry and de la Torre, 2018;Tactikos, 2005). Yet, these studies have limited scope because of small reference collections, except for Braun et al. (2008b). ...
The African Early Stone Age record, including that of Oldupai Gorge, reveals widespread evidence for hominin exploitation of quartzose lithic raw materials such as quartzite. However, few studies have sought to characterize these rock types grounded on the assumption that they are not amenable for provenance studies. Through the use of macroscopic, petrographic, and EDXRF analysis, we characterize source material from five quartzitic outcrops belonging to the Mozambique Belt adjacent to Oldupai Gorge. Our results show that certain macroscopic varieties strictly occur at some outcrops while petrographic analyses – which will be strengthened by a greater sample size – reveal that accessory minerals may be outcrop-specific. Statistical analyses of the geochemical data through linear correlations, Kruskal-Wallis tests, PCA, and DFA show that there are inter- and intra-outcrop differences, and elemental concentrations specific of certain outcrops. This multi-scalar approach provides a reproducible classificatory framework for additional characterization studies and archaeological testing at Oldupai to shed light on hominin palaeoenvironmental exploitation and palaeoecological behavior.
... Why Olduvai hominins preferentially chose one raw material over another, in these variable ways, has puzzled archaeologists for greater than 60 years. Proposed hypotheses explaining these phenomena include their disparate suitability for knapping (size, shape and material properties), edge functionality (durability, retouch frequency), production efficiency and expediency, cultural differences, and their relative accessibility or availability for hominins [1,2,7,[14][15][16][17][18][19]22,[27][28][29][30]. Given that some stone types available to hominins such as lavas and quartzite remained relatively consistent through time, it is possible that a single unifying factor could help explain the raw material selection behaviours of hominins at Olduvai ...
... Our data cannot distinguish between these options as the use of lava in both contexts is advantageous; however, it helps explain why only lavas display this phenomenon. Future works investigating these and other raw material-related behaviours, such as core reduction intensity and efficacy [7,14,[16][17][18][19]22], retouching frequency [13,16,17,24], tool function [19,21,28] and transportation distances [8,15,22,29], may similarly profit from the data provided here at Olduvai and elsewhere (e.g. [56,57]). ...
For more than 1.8 million years hominins at Olduvai Gorge were faced with a choice: whether to use lavas, quartzite or chert to produce stone tools. All are available locally and all are suitable for stone tool production. Using controlled cutting tests and fracture mechanics theory we examine raw material selection decisions throughout Olduvai's Early Stone Age. We quantify the force, work and material deformation required by each stone type when cutting, before using these data to compare edge sharpness and durability. Significant differences are identified, confirming performance to depend on raw material choice. When combined with artefact data, we demonstrate that Early Stone Age hominins optimized raw material choices based on functional performance characteristics. Doing so flexibly: choosing raw materials dependent on their sharpness and durability, alongside a tool's loading potential and anticipated use-life. In this way, we demonstrate that early lithic artefacts at Olduvai Gorge were engineered to be functionally optimized cutting tools.
... Rocks used for artifact manufacture are alternatively known as lithic raw materials and occur as mineral aggregates of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary origin that are nonrenewable and spatially exhaustible over a non-geological timeframe (Kyara, 1996). Raw material characterization and sourcing through comparative study of geological specimens and artifacts (Weigand et al., 1977;Shotton and Hendry, 1979) can provide insights into stone selection and procurement strategies (Stout et al., 2005), transportation costs (Kyara, 1999), technological façonnage (Mason and Aigner, 1987), functional suitability (Ebright, 1987), anthropogenic usage (Courtenay et al., 2019), landuse behavior (Tactikos, 2005), population movements (Reimer, 2018), and social networks of trade and exchange (Lebo and Johnson, 2007). By extension, inferences may be drawn on technological, economic, ritual, and political systems in a variety of archaeological contexts (e.g., Renfrew, 1975;Flannery, 1976;Sidrys, 1976). ...
... First, it is welldocumented that raw material morphometry and mechanical properties, at and beyond Oldupai, affect the classification of artifact assemblages (Leakey, 1971;Kyara, 1999;Archer and Braun, 2010), and the behavioral interpretations gleaned from them such as the technical abilities of their makers (Jones, 1979(Jones, , 1994. Second, while previous studies on Oldupai's lithic raw materials relied on macroscopic, petrographic, and geochemical techniques, they have not comprehensively characterized quartzitic outcrops (Leakey, 1971;Stiles et al., 1974;Hay, 1976;Stiles, 1991Stiles, , 1998Jones, 1994;Leakey and Roe, 1994;Kyara, 1999;Mollel, 2002;Tactikos, 2005;Blumenschine et al., 2008;Santonja et al., 2014;McHenry and de la Torre, 2018). Most recently, Egeland et al. (2019) studied local outcrops using a portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscope for chemical characterization and a Schmidt Hammer to determine fracture predictability. ...
... Apart from this most recent study, the lack of characterization studies is unwarranted for several reasons. Most notably, research at Oldupai has been ongoing for over a century (Kent, 1978;Leakey, 1978;Hay, 1990), quartzite artifacts are ubiquitous (Leakey, 1971;Leakey and Roe, 1994), quartzite is of assumed importance based on experimental studies (Diez-Martín et al., 2011;de la Torre et al., 2013;Gurtov and Eren, 2014;Yustos et al., 2015;Byrne et al., 2016), and certain quartzitic outcrops have played a central role in discussions about hominin behavior in the Oldupai paleobasin (Leakey, 1971;Hay, 1976;Tactikos, 2005;Blumenschine et al., 2008). We previously developed a multi-scalar approach to characterize quartzites from different outcrops near Oldupai (Soto et al., 2020a), which integrates macroscopic properties, petrographic features, and chemical compositional data. ...
Oldupai Gorge is located within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in northern Tanzania along the western margin of the East African Rift System. Oldupai’s sedimentary record exhibits a complex sequence of inter-stratified lithic assemblages associated with the Early, Middle, and Later Stone Age. While diachronic technological change is perceptible, the totality of locally available rocks remained largely unchanged through time. Here, thin section petrography, Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, and Electron Probe Micro Analysis were employed to characterize source lithologies in the Oldupai region. One of our goals was to determine if outcrops have rock types with unique mineral compositions amenable for sourcing lithic artifacts. Geological samples were collected in primary and secondary positions, from which sixty-two samples were selected for analysis. Comparative analyses show that five outcrops have quartzites with unique mineral compositions, seven meta-granite varieties are unique to five individual outcrops, Engelosin phonolite samples are texturally and mineralogically unique, and magmatic samples recovered in secondary position may be sourced to their volcanic center. Our results demonstrate it is feasible to differentiate between source materials using optical mineralogy which implies that sourcing lithic artifacts based on mineral compositions is possible. This is further substantiated by assigning the source/s for previously described fuchsitic quartzite artifacts from three archaeological sites at Oldupai as this raw material type uniquely occurs at two nearby outcrops. Systematic archaeological testing will allow future researchers to glean new understandings of hominin behavior and resource procurement within the Oldupai paleobasin.
... Considering that quartz-rich rocks were widely exploited during the ESA throughout continental Africa Bunn, 1982;Chavaillon, 1976;Chazan et al., 2012;Harris et al., 1987;Howell et al., 1987;Isaac and Harris, 1978;Kaufulu and Stern, 1987;Kuman, 1996;Kuman and Field, 2009;Kuman and Clarke, 2000;McNabb and Kuman, 2015;Merrick and Merrick, 1976;Plummer, 2004;Sheppard and Kleindienst, 1996;Toth, 1982), these rock types represent an important avenue to understand early hominin technology and ecological behavior (Ambrose, 2001;Braun and Hovers, 2009;De Heinzelin et al., 1999;Potts, 1994;Schick, 1987). However, there are only a few ESA characterization studies specifically dealing with quartzite designed to establish its sourcing prospects, and most of these studies specifically deal with material from Oldupai Gorge (Blumenschine et al. 2008;Braun et al. 2008b;Hay, 1976;Kyara, 1999;McHenry and de la Torre, 2018;Tactikos, 2005). Yet, these studies have limited scope because of small reference collections, except for Braun et al. (2008b). ...
... The majority of previous studies investigating Palaeolithic artifact assemblage diversity focus mainly on tool types (e.g. Shott, 2008Shott, , 2010Bocquet-Appel and Tuffreau, 2009; but see Tactikos, 2005). It has been shown that Palaeolithic tool types/forms can grade into one another when successively retouched (Dibble and Rolland, 1992;Dibble, 1995). ...
The European Middle Palaeolithic archaeological database is rich, but is biased towards evidence that originates in stratified sites. In many river catchments, prevalent and often ignored evidence for Middle Palaeolithic occupation is found in palimpsest lithic assemblages on the surface. By way of a case study, this paper addresses the problem of how to integrate lithic artifact assemblage data from such contexts to complement an often unbalanced picture of long-term land use. Analysis of a sample of Middle Palaeolithic surface assemblages from south-southwest facing edges of plateaus and terraces in Dutch and Belgian Limburg yields data suitable for comparison and integration with those from stratified assemblages associated with the wider Maas River valley floor. Sample size and artifact class diversity relationships account for sample size effects and numerically summarize patterns of inter-site fragmentation of core reduction sequences and differential artifact discard, arguably indicators of regional mobility and land use. Variability in artifact class diversity among assemblages also indicates differences in site occupational frequency. When viewed from a long-term diachronic perspective, integrated evidence from cumulative and spatial palimpsests suggests that land use behavior was complex, dynamic, and varied according to topographic factors in the research area. Lack of chronological resolution, variable site formation processes and conditions of artifact recovery complicate detailed interpretation of land use patterns. Despite these problems, results suggest that throughout the Middle Palaeolithic in the research area some plateau and terrace localities were 'persistent places' frequently re-occupied for a variety of purposes, while other similarly situated sites and localities more closely associated with river and stream valleys appear to have been occupied less frequently for a more limited range of activities.
... Though technological homogeneity within the Oldowan has been questioned [6][7][8], Oldowan research has primarily investigated research questions only tangentially related to its production. Productive research programs asking questions related to differential landscape usage [9][10][11][12][13][14] have demonstrated that Oldowan-producing hominins were cognizant of raw material economics. Similarly, even from the earliest Oldowan examples at Gona, Ethiopia [15,16], and Kanjera, Kenya [17] it is clear that early stone tool using hominins had preferences for some raw materials over others. ...
... Similarly, even from the earliest Oldowan examples at Gona, Ethiopia [15,16], and Kanjera, Kenya [17] it is clear that early stone tool using hominins had preferences for some raw materials over others. Particularly successful research has focused on the functional aspects of Oldowan technology as related to cut-marked bone in both archaeological and experimental settings [10,[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]. ...
... More recently, Roche and colleagues argued that Oldowan technology is not as uniform as was once thought based on refitted artifacts from Lokalalei 2C from the west side of Lake Turkana in Northern Kenya [29,30]. Clear evidence suggests that later Oldowan assemblages at Peninj have curated components [31] and that Olduvai Gorge assemblages were utilized for diverse functions [32], though other research suggests more uniformity in these functions [10]. However, early lithic assemblages from Gona, Ethiopia may suggest technological stasis in the Oldowan [33]. ...
Recent research suggests that variation exists among and between Oldowan stone tool assemblages. Oldowan variation might represent differential constraints on raw materials used to produce these stone implements. Alternatively, variation among Oldowan assemblages could represent different methods that Oldowan producing hominins utilized to produce these lithic implements. Identifying differential patterns of stone tool production within the Oldowan has implications for assessing how stone tool technology evolved, how traditions of lithic production might have been culturally transmitted, and for defining the timing and scope of these evolutionary events. At present there is no null model to predict what morphological variation in the Oldowan should look like. Without such a model, quantifying whether Oldowan assemblages vary due to raw material constraints or whether they vary due to differences in production technique is not possible. This research establishes a null model for Oldowan lithic artifact morphological variation. To establish these expectations this research 1) models the expected range of variation through large scale reduction experiments, 2) develops an algorithm to categorize archaeological flakes based on how they are produced, and 3) statistically assesses the methods of production behavior used by Oldowan producing hominins at the site of DK from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania via the experimental model. Results indicate that a subset of quartzite flakes deviate from the null expectations in a manner that demonstrates efficiency in flake manufacture, while some basalt flakes deviate from null expectations in a manner that demonstrates inefficiency in flake manufacture. The simultaneous presence of efficiency in stone tool production for one raw material (quartzite) and inefficiency in stone tool production for another raw material (basalt) suggests that Oldowan producing hominins at DK were able to mediate the economic costs associated with stone tool procurement by utilizing high-cost materials more efficiently than is expected and low-cost materials in an inefficient manner.
... Since the 1990s, new discoveries and new research based on technological analysis of lithic collections brought this view into question [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. They suggested that Oldowan industries displayed a greater technological skill and internal variability than had been surmised. ...
... Nevertheless, this volcanic glass was not available or otherwise never knapped by hominins during the Oldowan and rarely used during the Acheulean. Obsidian was intensely exploited later, starting in the Middle Stone Age, and became dominant in the Late Stone Age [1,11,[52][53][54]. Melka Kunture is the only known exception, documenting a continuous and extensive use of obsidian since the very beginning of stone-tool production [26][27][28][29]34]. ...
The Oldowan Industrial Complex has long been thought to have been static, with limited internal variability, embracing techno-complexes essentially focused on small-to-medium flake production. The flakes were rarely modified by retouch to produce small tools, which do not show any standardized pattern. Usually, the manufacture of small standardized tools has been interpreted as a more complex behavior emerging with the Acheulean technology. Here we report on the ~1.7 Ma Oldowan assemblages from Garba IVE-F at Melka Kunture in the Ethiopian highland. This industry is structured by technical criteria shared by the other East African Oldowan assemblages. However, there is also evidence of a specific technical process never recorded before, i.e. the systematic production of standardized small pointed tools strictly linked to the obsidian exploitation. Standardization and raw material selection in the manufacture of small tools disappear at Melka Kunture during the Lower Pleistocene Acheulean. This proves that 1) the emergence of a certain degree of standardization in tool-kits does not reflect in itself a major step in cultural evolution; and that 2) the Oldowan knappers, when driven by functional needs and supported by a highly suitable raw material, were occasionally able to develop specific technical solutions. The small tool production at ~1.7 Ma, at a time when the Acheulean was already emerging elsewhere in East Africa, adds to the growing amount of evidence of Oldowan techno-economic variability and flexibility, further challenging the view that early stone knapping was static over hundreds of thousands of years.
