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Overview of glutamate–cysteine ligase. (A) Oligomeric organization and redox regulation of the three types of GCL are shown. (B) Structure of the B. juncea GCL showing the positions of the two disulfide bonds (gold space-filling models). Secondary structure elements are colored as follows: α-helices in blue and β-strands in rose.
Source publication
In plants, exposure to temperature extremes, heavy metal-contaminated soils, drought, air pollutants, and pathogens results in the generation of reactive oxygen species that alter the intracellular redox environment, which in turn influences signaling pathways and cell fate. As part of their response to these stresses, plants produce glutathione. G...
Citations
... Glutathione (GSH) plays a crucial role in protecting cells from oxidation and stress, primarily acting through the metabolic and signal transduction pathways to exert its physiological functions [39]. Glutathione is mainly involved in plant disease resistance, cell proliferation, root development, salt tolerance, protection against cold damage, and metabolic detoxification of a series of heterogenic elements (e.g., herbicides, sulfur dioxide, and ozone) and heavy metals [40]. Interestingly, in the present study, GSH metabolism was only identified in response to bacterial invasion of the susceptible genotypes (Fig. 6B,C). ...
Background
Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum severely affects peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) yields. The breeding of resistant cultivars is an efficient means of controlling plant diseases. Therefore, identification of resistance genes effective against bacterial wilt is a matter of urgency. The lack of a reference genome for a resistant genotype severely hinders the process of identification of resistance genes in peanut. In addition, limited information is available on disease resistance-related pathways in peanut.
Results
Full-length transcriptome data were used to generate wilt-resistant and -susceptible transcript pools. In total, 253,869 transcripts were retained to form a reference transcriptome for RNA-sequencing data analysis. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed the plant-pathogen interaction pathway to be the main resistance-related pathway for peanut to prevent bacterial invasion and calcium plays an important role in this pathway. Glutathione metabolism was enriched in wilt-susceptible genotypes, which would promote glutathione synthesis in the early stages of pathogen invasion. Based on our previous quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping results, the genes arahy.V6I7WA and arahy.MXY2PU, which encode nucleotide-binding site-leucine-rich repeat receptor proteins, were indicated to be associated with resistance to bacterial wilt.
Conclusions
This study identified several pathways associated with resistance to bacterial wilt and identified candidate genes for bacterial wilt resistance in a major QTL region. These findings lay a foundation for investigation of the mechanism of resistance to bacterial wilt in peanut.
... As part of the plant defense system, GSH plays an active role in maintaining redox homeostasis, besides playing an active role as an antioxidant in the detoxification process (Meyer and Hell, 2005;Noctor et al., 2012). As part of the ascorbate-glutathione pathway, GSH quenches the ROS and thereby eliminates the damaging effect of peroxides (Galant et al., 2011). Plants such as Zea mays, Solanum lycopersicum, and Brassica oleracea on exposure to toxic levels of chromium lead to enhancement in the production of GSH (di Toppi et al., 2002). ...
Nature holds everything in the universe. Any change to its constituents i.e., soil, water, and air, imposes serious consequences on the life it holds. An adaption to modernized technologies often progresses with the introduction of harmful contaminants such as heavy metals into the environment. Heavy metals not only threaten the ecosystem but contributes tremendously to health adversaries among inhabiting human population. Being recalcitrant, its release from industries perturbs the ecological balance and as such manifests serious consequences on the growth and development of plants. It employs carriers of essential ions for uptake at the root surface followed by translocation to aerial parts of the plant and subsequent accumulation imparts severe toxicity to plants. It evokes serious perturbations to plant health via, modification to morphological and physiological features, and alteration of the biochemical parameters through enhancement in the production of reactive oxidative and nitrogen species. Interference with the growth parameters of plants proceeds with their complexation to organic moieties for compartmentalization in vacuole or enhancement in the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. The present study covers information on the uptake, transport , and distribution along with its toxicity in the plant system, and remediation strategies for adaptation towards the restoration of the environment.
... KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that most of the upregulated genes were significantly (p.adj ≤ 0.05) involved in metabolism pathways, such as Peptidases and inhibitors (ko01002, contained179 genes), Protein digestion and absorption (ko04974, contained 53 genes), Galactose metabolism (ko00052, contained 41 genes), Glutathione metabolism (ko00480, contained 41 genes), Cytochrome P450 (ko00199, contained 40 genes) (Fig. 4d). Of interest, glutathione plays a vital role in plant disease resistance, cell proliferation, root development, salt tolerance, and cold injury protection [126]. The pathways of "Glutathione metabolism" and "Cytochrome P450" in insects were beneficial for inhibiting plant defence response and metabolizing and detoxifying xenobiotics from the plant [121]. ...
Background
The plant bug, Pachypeltis micranthus Mu et Liu (Hemiptera: Miridae), is an effective potential biological control agent for Mikania micrantha H.B.K. (Asteraceae; one of the most notorious invasive weeds worldwide). However, limited knowledge about this species hindered its practical application and research. Accordingly, sequencing the genome of this mirid bug holds great significance in controlling M. micrantha.
Results
Here, 712.72 Mb high-quality chromosome-level scaffolds of P. micranthus were generated, of which 707.51 Mb (99.27%) of assembled sequences were anchored onto 15 chromosome-level scaffolds with contig N50 of 16.84 Mb. The P. micranthus genome had the highest GC content (42.43%) and the second highest proportion of repetitive sequences (375.82 Mb, 52.73%) than the three other mirid bugs (i.e., Apolygus lucorum, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, and Nesidiocoris tenuis). Phylogenetic analysis showed that P. micranthus clustered with other mirid bugs and diverged from the common ancestor approximately 200 million years ago. Gene family expansion and/or contraction were analyzed, and significantly expanded gene families associated with P. micranthus feeding and adaptation to M. micrantha were manually identified. Compared with the whole body, transcriptome analysis of the salivary gland revealed that most of the upregulated genes were significantly associated with metabolism pathways and peptidase activity, particularly among cysteine peptidase, serine peptidase, and polygalacturonase; this could be one of the reasons for precisely and highly efficient feeding by the oligophagous bug P. micranthus on M. micrantha.
Conclusion
Collectively, this work provides a crucial chromosome-level scaffolds resource to study the evolutionary adaptation between mirid bug and their host. It is also helpful in searching for novel environment-friendly biological strategies to control M. micrantha.
... Among those, OsGSH1 and OsGPX4 showed the most significant differences. Because OsGSH1 is a ratelimiting enzyme for GSH synthesis (Galant et al., 2011) and OsGPX4 is a key enzyme for GSH clearance of H 2 O 2 (Passaia et al., 2014), these findings suggested that H 2 O 2 homeostasis is important for OsML1-mediated mesocotyl elongation, and that H 2 O 2 scavenging by GSH may play a crucial role. ...
Mesocotyl length (ML) is a crucial factor in determining the establishment and yield of rice planted through dry direct seeding, a practice that is increasingly popular in rice production worldwide. ML is determined by both endogenous and external environment, and inherits as a complex trait. To date, only a few genes have been cloned, and the mechanisms underlying mesocotyl elongation remain largely unknown. Here, through genome-wide association study using sequenced germplasm, we revealed that natural allelic variations in a mitochondrial transcription termination factor, OsML1, predominantly determined the natural variation of ML in rice. Natural variants in the coding regions of OsML1 resulted in five major haplotypes with clear differentiation between subspecies and subpopulations in cultivated rice. The much-reduced genetic diversity of cultivated rice compared to the common wild rice suggested that OsML1 is underwent selection during domestication. Transgenic experiments and molecular analysis demonstrated that OsML1 contributes to ML by influencing cell elongation primarily determined by H2 O2 homeostasis. Overexpression of OsML1 promoted mesocotyl elongation and thus improved emergence rate under deep direct seeding (DDS). Taken together, our results suggested that OsML1 is a key positive regulator of ML, and is useful in developing varieties for DDS by conventional and transgenic approaches.
... Secondly, there is competition between the metals Fe and Cr during the translocation of Cr(VI) from the roots to aerial organs of plants [82,83]. Noteworthy is the role of glutathione, both in its reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) forms, in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, where it eliminates harmful peroxides [84]. Interestingly, the defense strategies were not reinforced by the interaction of the ABA gene biosynthesis (OsNCED2 and OsNCED3) with salicylic acid [85]. ...
One of the major challenges faced by contemporary agriculture is how to achieve better yields of crops and, consequently, higher biomass, even in unfavorable environmental conditions. This challenge corresponds to the assumptions of sustainable development, wherein it is envisaged that plant biomass should be used on a large scale for heat generation or conversion of biofuels. Keeping pace with observed trends, the following study was conducted in order to determine the effect of Cr(VI) on the net calorific value of Zea mays, to assess the impact of this element on soil enzymatic activity, and to identify the effectiveness of compost and humic acids in alleviating possible negative effects of Cr(VI) toxicity. These aims were pursued by setting up a pot experiment, in which soil either uncontaminated or contaminated with increasing doses of Cr(VI) of 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 mg Cr kg−1 d.m. was submitted to biostimulation with compost and the preparation HumiAgra, a source of humic acids, and cropped with Zea mays. The plant height, yield, and net calorific value of the aerial parts of maize, as well as its root yield, were determined. Additionally, the activity of seven soil enzymes and the values of the impact indices of compost and HumiAgra relative to the analyzed parameters were determined. It was found that Cr(VI) decreased the amount of energy obtained from the plants by decreasing maize biomass, and additionally by distorting the biochemical balance of the soil. Dehydrogenases, urease, and arylsulfatase proved to be particularly sensitive to this element. It was demonstrated that HumiAgra was more effective than compost in mollifying the adverse effects of Cr(VI) on the activity of soil enzymes and, consequently, on the biomass of Zea mays.
... KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that most of the upregulated genes were signi cantly (p.adj ≤ 0.05) involved in metabolism pathways, such as Peptidases and inhibitors (ko01002, contained179 genes), Protein digestion and absorption (ko04974, contained 53 genes), Galactose metabolism (ko00052, contained 41 genes), Glutathione metabolism (ko00480, contained 41 genes), Cytochrome P450 (ko00199, contained 40 genes) (Fig. 4d). Of interest, glutathione plays a vital role in plant disease resistance, cell proliferation, root development, salt tolerance, and cold injury protection [107]. The pathways of "Glutathione metabolism" and "Cytochrome P450" in insects were bene cial for inhibiting plant defence response and metabolizing and detoxifying xenobiotics from the plant [103]. ...
Background
The plant bug, Pachypeltis micranthus Mu et Liu (Hemiptera: Miridae), is an effective potential biological control agent for Mikania micrantha H.B.K. (Asteraceae; one of the most notorious invasive weeds worldwide). However, limited knowledge about this species hindered its practical application and research. Accordingly, we sequenced the genome of this mirid bug, which is of great significance for M. micrantha control.
Results
Here, we generated a 712.72 Mb high-quality chromosome-level assembly of P. micranthus, of which 707.51 Mb (99.27%) of assembled sequences were anchored onto 15 chromosomes with contig N50 of 16.84 Mb. The P. micranthus genome had the highest GC content (42.43%) and the second highest proportion of repetitive sequences (375.82 Mb, 52.73%) than the three other mirid bugs (i.e., Apolygus lucorum, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, and Nesidiocoris tenuis). Phylogenetic analysis showed that P. micranthus clustered with other mirid bugs and diverged from the common ancestor approximately 200.01 million years ago. We analyzed gene family expansion and or contraction and manually identified some significantly expanded gene families associated with P. micranthus feeding and adaptation to M. micrantha. Compared with the whole body, transcriptome analysis of the salivary gland revealed that most of the upregulated genes were significantly associated with metabolism pathways and peptidase activity, particularly among cysteine peptidase, serine peptidase, and polygalacturonase; this could be one of the reasons for precisely and highly efficient feeding by the oligophagous bug P. micranthus on M. micrantha.
Conclusion
Collectively, this work provides a crucial chromosome-level genome resource to study the evolutionary adaptation between mirid bug and their host. It is also helpful in searching for novel environment-friendly biological strategies to control M. micrantha.
... This small thiol molecule acts as a strong non-enzymatic antioxidant and being the precursor of phytochelatins (PCs), GSH helps in the chelation of toxic metals/metalloids and their sequestration in the cell vacuoles. This chemically flexible tripeptide is produced in two ATP-dependent steps (Galant et al., 2011). The first step involves ATP-dependent condensation of glutamate and cysteine catalysed by glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL) to form the gamma-glutamylcysteine (γGC), which further converted into glutathione in presence of the enzyme glutathione synthetase (Franklin et al., 2009). ...
Chromium (Cr) contamination of soil and water poses serious threats to agricultural crop production. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are conserved, non-coding small RNAs that play pivotal roles in plant growth, development and stress responses through fine-tuning of post-transcriptional gene expression. To better understand the molecular circuit of Cr-responsive miRNAs, two sRNA libraries were prepared from control and Cr (VI) [100 ppm] exposed maize roots. Using deep sequencing, we identified 80 known (1 up and 79 down) and 18 downregulated novel miRNAs from Cr (VI) challenged roots. Gene ontology (GO) analysis reveals that predicted target genes of Cr (VI) responsive miRNAs are potentially involved in diverse cellular and biological processes including plant growth and development (miR159c, miR164d, miR319b-3p and zma_25.145), redox homeostasis (miR528-5p, miR396a-5p and zma_9.132), heavy metal uptake and detoxification (miR159f-5p, 164e-5p, miR408a, miR444f and zma_2.127), signal transduction (miR159f, miR160a-5p, miR393a-5p, miR408-5p and zma_43.158), cell signalling (miR156j, 159c-5p, miR166c-5p and miR398b). Higher accumulation of Cr in maize roots might be due to upregulation of ABC transporter G family member 29 targeted by miR444f. Instead of isolated increase in SOD expression, significant decline in GSH:GSSH ratio and histochemical staining strongly suggest Cr (VI) stress mediated disruption of ROS scavenging machinery thus unbalancing normal cellular homeostasis. Moreover, miR159c-mediated enhanced expression of GAMYB might be a reason for impaired root growth under Cr (VI) stress. In a nutshell, the present microRNAomic study sheds light on the miRNA-target gene regulatory network involved in adaptive responses of maize seedlings to Cr (VI) stress.
... GSH is always being converted to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and then again will be converted to GSH with the help of glutathione reductase (GR), which is an NADPH dependent enzyme (Fabiano et al., 2015). GSH is also popular for its role in antioxidant metabolism (Galant et al., 2011;Noctor et al., 2012). GSH biosynthesis is an energy dependent process where two molecules of ATP are required, and two distinct phyto-enzymes were so far reported to be responsible for GSH production. ...
Plants are always subjected to a variety of environmental stresses, which will
ultimately reduce the yield, and also affect the plant in certain other ways. Plants being exposed to heavy metal stress are also very common nowadays, out of which nickel (Ni) has gained considerable concentration because of its vigorously growing level in the atmosphere. Common household substances contain an adequate amount of Ni, and as a result, the concentration is being increased in water, air, and soil. On the immediate fixation of Ni in the soil, it is accumulated in plant body by their roots. Though, Ni is one of the most important micronutrients which is necessary for normal plant growth and development at a trace amount, but at high concentration it can cause toxic effect to the plant. At an excessive level, it may induce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn can degenerate plasma membrane, can hamper certain physiological activates like photosynthesis, transpiration, and can deactivate certain metalloenzymes. But in contrast, it is a proven fact that Ni plays an essential role in antioxidant metabolism in plant. Ni is
the constituent element of several phyto-enzymes like Urease and glyoxalase I (Gly I). During stressed condition methylglyoxal (MG) is produced in the plant body, which is eliminated by glyoxalase enzyme, which confirms the indirect utility of Ni in stress management. In this chapter, we will discuss about the functionality of nickel in tolerance against a wide range of environmental stresses in detail.
... In Arabidopsis, glutamate-cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase (GS) are encoded by the same gene (with different start sites), which produces proteins that are localized into the cytosol or transported to plastids [21]. Plant systems are unique in that they compartmentalize glutathione biosynthesis [2,22]. In plants, glutathione content is typically increased by over-expression of GCL rather than GS by increasing flux through the system. ...
Abstract: Glutathione (GSH) is an abundant tripeptide that can enhance plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress. Its main role is to counter free radicals and detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in cells under unfavorable conditions. Moreover, along with other second messengers (such as ROS, calcium, nitric oxide, cyclic nucleotides, etc.), GSH also acts as a cellular signal involved in stress signal pathways in plants, directly or along with the glutaredoxin and thioredoxin systems. While associated biochemical activities and roles in cellular stress response have been widely presented, the relationship between phytohormones and GSH has received comparatively less attention. This review, after presenting glutathione as part of plants' feedback to main abiotic stress factors, focuses on the interaction between GSH and phytohormones, and their roles in the modulation of the acclimatation and tolerance to abiotic stress in crops plants.
... In Arabidopsis, glutamate-cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase (GS) are encoded by the same gene (with different start sites), which produces proteins that are localized into the cytosol or transported to plastids [21]. Plant systems are unique in that they compartmentalize glutathione biosynthesis [2,22]. In plants, glutathione content is typically increased by over-expression of GCL rather than GS by increasing flux through the system. ...
Glutathione (GSH) is an abundant tripeptide that can enhance plant tolerance to biotic andabiotic stress. Its main role is to counter free radicals and detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS)generated in cells under unfavorable conditions. Moreover, along with other second messengers(such as ROS, calcium, nitric oxide, cyclic nucleotides, etc.), GSH also acts as a cellular signalinvolved in stress signal pathways in plants, directly or along with the glutaredoxin and thioredoxinsystems. While associated biochemical activities and roles in cellular stress response have beenwidely presented, the relationship between phytohormones and GSH has received comparativelyless attention. This review, after presenting glutathione as part of plants’ feedback to main abioticstress factors, focuses on the interaction between GSH and phytohormones, and their roles in themodulation of the acclimatation and tolerance to abiotic stress in crops plants.
