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Geometric mean density of hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) recorded during visual transects (50×6 m bands with replication) by (A) habitat type and (B) season. (C) Mean fork length for hogfish observed over all seasons during all research dives. Depth categories were classified as nearshore (<30 m depth; open circles) or offshore (≥30 m depth; filled circles), and error bars represent 95% confidence limits.
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Distribution and demographics of the hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) were investigated by using a combined approach of in situ observations and life history analyses. Presence, density, size, age, and size and age at sex change all varied with depth in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Hogfish (64-774 mm fork length and 0-19 years old) were observed year-...
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... Hogfsh (L. maximus) can grow to sizes of up to 84 cm and have a lifespan of up to 19 years [42,66]. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, they exhibit a bathymetric distribution pattern associated with size and age, likely infuenced by high fshing pressure nearshore (<30 m), where smaller individuals are more commonly found [66]. ...
... maximus) can grow to sizes of up to 84 cm and have a lifespan of up to 19 years [42,66]. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, they exhibit a bathymetric distribution pattern associated with size and age, likely infuenced by high fshing pressure nearshore (<30 m), where smaller individuals are more commonly found [66]. In CB region, growth is also appearing to be infuenced by fshing pressure [67]. ...
The study calculated the Length-Based Spawning Potential Ratio (LB-SPR) for several species, including red grouper (Epinephelus
morio), black grouper (Mycteroperca bonaci), gag grouper (M. microlepis), yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), lane snapper
(Lutjanus synagris), hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus), and white grunt (Haemulon plumierii). Data were obtained from the small-scale commercial fleet operating in the red grouper fishery on the Campeche Bank within the Yucatan Peninsula. Monthly records
of total length (cm) from April 2017 to May 2018, totaling 10,182 fish, were collected from five fishing ports along the Yucatan
Peninsula coast. Biological data, such as growth and reproductive patterns and exploitation parameters were gathered from
scientific literature. The LB-SPR package on the R Core Team platform was utilized for analysis. Despite being the largest, groupers exhibited immaturity (SL50 < L50) and low Spawning Potential Ratio (SPR). Red and black groupers showed particularly low SPR values (0.10 and 0.05, respectively), indicating a looming risk of local extinction. The gag grouper achieved the highest SPR value (0.26) among groupers, although it was very close to the minimum critical value (i.e., 0.20). Snappers, hogfish, and white grunt were generally captured in the adult state (SL50 > L50). Yellowtail, hogfish, and white grunt displayed high SPR values (0.44, 0.72, and 0.98, respectively). Lane snapper had a low SPR (0.28) but fell within the range for maintaining satisfactory stock productivity, albeit with reduced yields. The findings emphasize the urgent need to adjust the current management framework for the red grouper fishery, focusing on improving fishing gear selectivity to address heightened pressure on both juvenile groupers and adult lane snapper. Implementing these measures is crucial to mitigate the risks of local extinction and population decline for each species.
... Finally, gonadal histology and the presence of remnant previtellogenic oocytes within transitioning and functioning testes provide the best evidence that B. albotaeniatus is a protogynous hermaphrodite like other labrids (Cossington et al., 2010;Gillanders, 1995;Jones, 1980;Sadovy & Liu, 2008;Warner, 1975) and hogfish in particular (McBride & Johnson, 2007). The transition from female to male in hogfish is dictated by size of the individual and social dynamics (Collins & Mcbride, 2011;McBride & Johnson, 2007). Single males within different species of hogfish may defend permanent territories and mate with harems of females, defend temporary reproductive territories or spawn together in groups (Hoffman, 1983(Hoffman, , 1985. ...
Growth rate, longevity, maturity and spawning seasonality were estimated for the endemic Hawaiian hogfish Bodianus albotaeniatus. The sex‐specific von Bertalanffy growth parameters are L∞ = 339 mm fork length (LF) and K = 0.66 year⁻¹ for females and L∞ = 417 mm LF and K = 0.33 year⁻¹ for males. The maximum age is 22 years. Histological gonad analysis and the absence of small and young males indicate a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite. Size and age at maturity for combined sexes are L50 = 238 mm LF and A50 = 1.6 years.
... Blue cod in these areas have undergone various management interventions within the last decades, including a fishing closure, size and slot limits, bag limits, and seasonal closures. The observed truncated length distributions toward large proportions of smaller individuals and sex ratios skewed toward males indicated that, despite the efforts to manage and stabilize the populations, fishing mortality in the region likely remained high with the potential for negative fishery-induced effects on the sex ratio and egg production (e.g., Collins & McBride, 2011;Hamilton et al., 2007). ...
... The occurrence of sex change at different lengths between the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland populations provided evidence that sex change in blue cod is under social control, rather than occurring at a critical length. The pattern is consistent with observations of earlier onset of sex change within heavily fished populations for other protogynous hermaphrodites, such as the Caribbean parrotfishes (Sparisoma viride and Scarus vetula), hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus), and the California sheephead (Semicossyphus pulcher) (Collins & McBride, 2011;Hamilton et al., 2007;Hawkins & Roberts, 2003). ...
Sequential hermaphroditic species, such as blue cod (Parapercis colias), are particularly vulnerable to selective harvesting as it can directly influence the sex ratio, timing of sex change, and consequentially recruitment success. We analyzed the population structure, at which males dominate the populations, and modeled fecundity of blue cod from the Marlborough Sounds in the north of New Zealand's South Island, and compared these results with previously collected data from a blue cod population in Fiordland on the southwest coast of the South Island. In addition to the geographical difference, there were differences in the time the two populations were sampled, and the fisheries management regime between regions. Within the Marlborough Sounds population, the length‐frequency distribution was skewed toward high numbers of smaller individuals with an average length of 290 ± 59 mm. In Fiordland, the average length of blue cod was 380 ± 78 mm. Larger proportions of males within each length class were observed in the Marlborough Sounds, whereas females were the dominant sex in the Fiordland population. The estimated length at which males dominate the population was significantly smaller for the Marlborough Sounds population (182 mm) than for blue cod from the Fiordland population (419 mm). Geographical and temporal differences in sampling likely played important roles in the observed life history differences, particularly in the observed differences in growth. However, when compared to length and age data from national surveys, the life history traits of both sampled populations have remained relatively stable over the past 15 years, indicating that differences in population management and fishing pressure are the most likely explanation for the observed differences in length frequency and length‐at‐sex‐change. For effective and sustainable management of species with sequential hermaphroditism, size‐sensitive management, particularly protecting larger individuals, is required to avoid declines in length structure and recruitment limitations.
... This species occurs in coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina southward, throughout the Gulf of Mexico, and as far south as Brazil (Lieske and Myers 1994;Sampaio et al. 2016). They are common near rocky areas and reefs (Collins and McBride 2011). Hogfish are highly desired food fish with an established market and are targeted by both recreational and commercial anglers (Cooper et al. 2013). ...
Hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus are a high valued food fish with significant recreational and commercial fishing pressure and are a candidate species for marine aquaculture. There is a need to define safe and effective methods of anesthesia for handling of this species for aquaculture. Anesthesia efficacy was assessed with wild‐collected adult (>20 cm, 0.2 to 1.2 kg) and juvenile F1 (<11 cm, 5 to 50 g) Hogfish, using tricaine methanesulfonate (Tricaine‐S®) at 25, 50, 100, 125, and 150 mg L‐1 and AQUI‐S 20E® (10% eugenol) at 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mg L‐1 to determine favorable doses for minor handling. Favorable doses resulted in induction of light anesthesia and recovery time each under 5 min, zero mortality, and limited excitation behavior. For adult Hogfish, Tricaine‐S® was effective at inducing light anesthesia at 100‐150 mg L‐1 and was preferred over the effective range of AQUI‐S 20E® doses (100‐200 mg L‐1) based on fish behavioral observations while undergoing anesthesia. Additionally, induction of deep anesthesia was explored to inform potential doses for major and potentially lethal procedures. These same ranges were effective at inducing deep anesthesia in adults. Juvenile fish were effectively anesthetized at the same doses of Tricaine‐S® (100‐150 mg L‐1) and were induced to light and deep anesthesia faster than adults at the same dose levels. AQUI‐S 20E® was effective at inducing light anesthesia in juveniles at all levels tested, however no favorable dose for deep anesthesia was found. Overall, Hogfish were anesthetized with Tricaine‐S® at similar doses used with other species and responded to AQUI‐S 20E® similarly in terms of efficacy but unfavorably in terms of behavior.
... McBride and Richardson (2007) found the maximum potential length (L ∞ ) increased with distance from high-density population centers of the Florida Keys (i.e., 336 mm FL from Key West through Key Largo vs 651 mm FL from the Dry Tortugas). Similarly, Collins and McBride (2011) found that hogfish collected farther offshore (>30 m depth) were larger and older than nearshore individuals (L ∞ = 896 mm FL vs 381 mm FL) and size at sexual transition was occurring at almost twice the size at greater distance from shore (592 mm FL offshore vs 327 mm FL nearshore). In both cases, larger and older hogfish were found in areas less accessible to humans. ...
... Ages compared between the two readers were precise and showed little bias. Visually estimated marginal increment analysis showed a peak in opaque layer deposition between the months March and May, which correlates with the peak spawning season and is consistent with previous findings for this species (McBride andJohnson 2007, Collins andMcBride 2011). Initial age agreement was 97.4% between readers, with a calculated ACV of 0.26. ...
... The mean and maximum age of hogfish sampled in this study increased with reef depth (Table 2), suggesting an ontogenetic shift consistent with the pattern observed in the eastern Gulf (Collins and McBride 2011). However, the stark decrease in hogfish size at age 9 from the first to third reef confounds this premise. ...
The hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus , an economically important, reef-associated protogynous teleost, has gained additional interest from fisheries managers due to evidence of overfishing in the southeastern United States. This study collected data on age and growth of hogfish in southeast Florida (SEFL), an understudied part of the species’ range. Hogfish ( n = 227) were collected from three reef tracts at different depths between January 2016 and August 2017. The average maximum potential length ( L ∞) was 414 mm overall and showed evidence of Lee’s Phenomenon occurring relative to the eastern Gulf of Mexico, an area of presumed lower fishing pressure, where L ∞ was 920 mm. Hogfish growth was also found to vary significantly by reef location in SEFL. Otolith-based aging revealed that SEFL hogfish growth past age 3 significantly decreased as reef depth increased between the three reef tracts [length at age 9 ( L 9 ) = 564, 405, 351 mm FL]. By L 9 , hogfish from the shallowest reef tract (4–6 m) were on average 61% longer and four times the weight of individuals collected from the deepest reef tract (15–25 m). Annual survival also increased with depth (42%, 65%, 73%), with a linear relationship to growth at L 9 where R ² = 1.0, indicating there are inherent trade-offs between growth and longevity in hogfish of southeast Florida.
... Hogfish are an important component of Florida's commercial and recreational fisheries (GMFMC 2018), with landings being highest along the West Florida Shelf and historically dominated by spearfishing gears (McBride & Murphy 2003). Such fishing practices limit most harvest activity of hogfish in the eGOM to depths shallower than 30 m due to distance from shore and recreational diving limitations (Collins & McBride 2011, McBride & Richardson 2007, which could result in deepwater refugia (Tupper & Rudd 2002). In fact, hogfish residing offshore (> 30 m depths) are significantly larger than those captured nearshore (< 30 m depths) in the eGOM, even within the same age class (Collins & McBride 2011). ...
... Such fishing practices limit most harvest activity of hogfish in the eGOM to depths shallower than 30 m due to distance from shore and recreational diving limitations (Collins & McBride 2011, McBride & Richardson 2007, which could result in deepwater refugia (Tupper & Rudd 2002). In fact, hogfish residing offshore (> 30 m depths) are significantly larger than those captured nearshore (< 30 m depths) in the eGOM, even within the same age class (Collins & McBride 2011). This suggests that a mechanism other than ontogenetic movement (e.g. ...
... The classic hypothesis regarding hogfish life history and ontogeny is that individuals settle in estuarine seagrass habitats or nearshore reefs and gradually migrate offshore with increasing size or age (Davis 1976, Cooper et al. 2013. This life history theory was based mainly on landings data (Switzer et al. 2013) that showed increasing size with increasing depth (Collins & McBride 2011). These patterns could also be driven by selective fishing mortality in areas that are easily accessible and closer to shore (Frank et al. 2018), but this is contradicted by the higher densities that are found in shallower depths nearshore (Collins & McBride 2011). ...
Understanding ontogenetic linkages among fish habitats is critical for conservation of fish populations and the ecosystems on which they rely. Natural tags such as stable isotopes are effective for investigating ecological questions regarding fish movement and habitat use. We analyzed stable isotopes from sequentially deposited laminae of hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus eye lenses from the eastern Gulf of Mexico (eGOM) to investigate trophic and geographic changes across individual life histories. We documented evidence of 1 to 2 step trophic level increases through δ ¹⁵ N increases. We also observed depth separation at the juvenile stage, evidenced by δ ¹³ C variation early in life. These results suggest that adult hogfish in deeper habitats likely inhabited deeper juvenile habitats (i.e. nearshore reefs), while adult hogfish inhabiting shallower adult habitats likely used shallower juvenile habitats (i.e. estuaries). This novel finding for eGOM hogfish contradicts prior literature that solely discusses seagrass as juvenile habitat. We used muscle tissue isotopes to characterize juvenile hogfish habitats and linear discriminant function analysis (LDA) to determine the habitats previously inhabited by adults in this study. The LDA revealed Cedar Key as the most used juvenile hogfish habitat in this study, but more evidence is needed to determine its status as a nursery. This study provides the first evidence for ontogenetic migration of individual hogfish using natural tags as tracers and demonstrates a mechanism for identifying juvenile habitats based on eye lens stable isotope analysis. Identifying ontogenetic patterns and habitat use can help to better conserve stocks and essential fish habitats.
... We do not feel this is detrimental to the users of these data, as most individuals collected in the study, regardless of gear type, were <200 mm SL. For the reef species of interest, juveniles using seagrass beds are generally <200 mm SL (young-of-the-year size <200 mm SL; Hood et al., 1994;Johnson et al., 1995;Burton, 2001;Murie and Parkyn, 2005;McBride and Richardson, 2007;Collins and McBride, 2011), except M. microlepis, whose young-of-the-year SL is ca. 300 mm (Hood and Schlieder, 1992). ...
Many species of interest to management and conservation remain data-limited, and the data that are available are often unable to produce statistically reliable population trends. We examined 10 years of juvenile reef fish catch data from two gear-specific, fishery-independent surveys in the eastern Gulf of Mexico to assess our ability 1) to characterize population trends for various reef species sampled using haul seines or otter trawls and 2) to amend our survey, as logistics would allow, to improve those characterizations. Species richness, catch-per-unit-effort, and length-frequency distributions were generally similar between gear types, suggesting a single survey (i.e., one gear type) may be sufficient. Simulation-based power analyses for the reef fish species indicated that overall, otter trawl data provided greater power for detecting trends over a 10-year period (41-75 % probability to detect a 50 % change in abundance) than haul seine data (27-52 %). Likewise, otter trawl data provided greater power for detecting trends from one year to the next (22-53 % probability to detect a 50 % change in abundance in one year) than haul seine data (15-33 %). Simplifying data collection from two surveys to a single, trawl-only survey (and approximately doubling the number of trawl tows) was more efficient, more effective, and more powerful (64-91 % for the amended design with more tows) in detecting abundance trends. Furthermore, by increasing sample size but retaining all other design elements, the data collected during the trawl survey before and after the change remain comparable; the time series was not interrupted. These changes increase our confidence in estimating population trends, predicting productivity, and informing management and conservation decisions.
... because the specimens of L. maximus and O. chrysurus collected for this study come from small-scale fleet catches that operate due to the large extension of the continental shelf known as Campeche Bank, in a depth range of up to 20 m. In this sense, it has been reported that L. maximus moves offshore with growth (Collins & McBride 2011). O. chrysurus has a pattern of movements and heterogeneous distribution of juveniles associated with shallow areas and with seagrass and mangrove zones (Nagelkerken et al. 2000). ...
The relationship between total length and total weight (LWR) of four commercial species of finfish captured in the southern Gulf of Mexico (Lachnolaimus maximus, Ocyurus chrysurus, Mycteroperca bonaci, and Mycteroperca microlepis) was estimated. Two of these species are captured in the region by the small-scale fleet, while the other two are targeted by small-scale and semi-industrial fleets using harpoons, handlines, and long-lines. For the assessment, the organisms were sampled at the landing decks in the study area in two periods: 1996-1999 (semi-industrial fleet) and from April 2017 to May 2018 (small-scale fleet). A total of 2780 individuals were sampled which 2775 individuals were used to obtain LWR functions. The four species showed negative allometric growth with b < 3 for the 2017-2018 period, two species showed positive allometric growth with b > 3 for the 1996-1999 period. This type of information is an important input for the stock assessment of these species that support important fisheries in the zone and are under high fishing pressure levels.
... To assess depth-dependent fishing selectivity and its implications, detailed knowledge of the vertical distributions of both fish and fisheries is needed, but there are few examples in which such information has been considered for SSFs (but see Tyler et al. 2009;Collins and McBride 2011;Mitchell et al. 2014). This is somewhat surprising given the obvious relevance of this information for managing fisheries on multiple species with different depth distributions (Moore et al. 2016;Gilman et al. 2019). ...
... It is possible that the largest individuals tagged during the spawning season moved to deeper water for feeding later in the season, thus avoiding the fishery. A study on the Hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus, a labrid subjected to an SSF in the Gulf of Mexico, found that populations in shallow waters were smaller and younger than those found deeper and further offshore (Collins and McBride 2011). Similar to the wrasses in Norway, fishing pressure on Hogfish is presumably highest in shallow waters, so deeper offshore waters were suggested to act as refuges for larger, older, and faster-growing individuals. ...
Small‐scale fisheries (SSFs) tend to target shallow waters, but the depth distributions of coastal fish can vary depending on species, size, and sex. This creates a scope for a form of fishing selectivity that has received limited attention but can have considerable implications for monitoring and management of these fisheries. We conducted a case study on the Norwegian wrasse fishery, a developing SSF in which multiple species are caught in shallow waters (mean depth = 4.5 m) to be used as cleaner fish in aquaculture. Several of these wrasses have life histories and behaviors that are sensitive to selective fishing mortality, such as sexual size dimorphism, paternal care, and sex change. An experimental fishery was undertaken over three sampling periods in 2018. Data on catch, length, and sex of wrasses across a depth gradient (0–18 m) were collected and analyzed. We found that depth distributions were species specific and the vertical overlap with the fishery was high for Corkwing Wrasse Symphodus melops and Ballan Wrasse Labrus bergylta, which were most abundant at depths less than 5 m. Three other wrasse species had invariant or increasing abundance with depth and were therefore less likely to be negatively impacted by this fishery. Body size was positively correlated with depth for these wrasses, and sex ratio became more male biased for the Corkwing Wrasse, the only species that could be visually sexed. This study demonstrates that depth can have strong effects on fishing selectivity at multiple scales and that such knowledge is necessary to develop management strategies that balance fishing mortality sustainably across species, sizes, and sexes. We recommend that management priorities be directed toward the Ballan and Corkwing wrasses—the species having the highest vertical overlap with the fishery. Furthermore, CPUE was strongly affected by seasonality and positively correlated with increasing wave exposure for one of the species. This underscores the general importance of standardizing catch data for several environmental covariates when monitoring species that are affected by SSFs.
... For example, male sex ratios of scamp declined from ~38 to 18% from the 1970s to the 1990s and those of red grouper increased from ~14% in the 1960s to 22% in the 1990s . The male sex ratio in the protogynous hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus off the west Florida coast is estimated as ~12−17% (Collins & McBride 2011). Thus, although we cannot prove that sperm limitation is occurring, the above evidence suggests that male abundance is well below what would be expected in a healthy stock. ...
Gag grouper Mycteroperca microlepis are protogynous hermaphrodites, for which the assumption of female-driven reproductive potential may be inaccurate. In protogynous species, male abundance, fertilization success, and stock productivity are affected by where and when sex change occurs and how fishing pressure affects male recruitment and survivorship. In this study, we integrated large spatial-scale data with high-resolution data from a 3 yr study sampling gag at deep-water sites with varying spatial management (a marine protected area [MPA], a seasonally closed area, and an 'Open area'). Gag exhibited complex spatial ecology; females formed pre-spawning aggregations before migrating to deep-water spawning sites, which overlapped with locations where males were sampled year-round. The observed male sex ratio in the MPA was 5% compared to the expected 15%. It was 0% in less protected areas. Sex change occurred occasionally in small fish and before, during, and after the spawning season. In addition, sex change was observed in pre-spawning female-only aggregations as well on the spawning grounds, indicating that male social cues are not requisite. We propose that shallow-water, pre-spawning aggregations are a key spatio-temporal bottleneck to gag productivity. They appear to be an important source of transitionals and are heavily fished, which may negatively impact male recruitment to the spawning grounds. Our results indicate that overall gag abundance is low, MPAs do not protect all recruiting males (as previously assumed), and current regulations are not sufficient for the male population to recover to historic levels (~17% male).
