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Geological map of the Cambay Basin, Gujarat, showing location of fossiliferous site. Modified after Rana et al. (2004).
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A diverse assemblage of plant macrofossils and the associated representative palynofloral elements are documented from the early Eocene subsurface beds of the Cambay Shale Formation exposed in an open cast lignite mine at Vastan Village in the Surat District, western India. The Vastan mine succession is cyclic, each cycle representing a transgressi...
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... overlying the Deccan traps are of late Paleocene and early Eocene age, representing syn-rift stage of deposition and are referred to as the Vagadkhol/Olpad (older) and Cambay Shale (younger) formations, respectively. Their limited surface exposures occur in the form of thin strips along the Saurashtra coast and to the east of the Gulf of Cambay (Fig. 1) in western India. Further details on geology and lithostratigraphy of the area can be found in Sudhakar and Basu (1973), Pandey et al. (1993), and Sahni et al. ...
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... are known occurring mainly in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and southern India, and a few extending to northern India ( Gamble, 1881). Diospyros pentamera with which fossil wood shows the closest affinity is a large rainfor- est tree from south-eastern New South Wales to the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland, Australia. Phragmothyrites sp. (Fig. 10b) Material: Figured specimen, BSIP slide no. ...
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... undulatus n. sp. (Fig. 10c) Cookson, 1947), Notothyrites padappakarensis Jain and Gupta from the Cenozoic of Kerala coast, India (Jain and Gupta, 1970) and Notothyrites sp. cf. N. padappakarensis from the early Eocene Tura Formation of Assam, India ( Kar et al., 1972) in general morphology and the presence of an ostiole, but differs from them in other features, ...
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... sp. (Fig. 10e, f Dilcher, 1965) in being non-ostiolate and having pores in each cell, but differs in having small and thinner cells of the body with rectangular to triangular shapes. The peripheral cells are broader with serrate to dentate ...
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... semicircularis n. sp. (Fig. 10g) Etymology: Named for its semicircular ascomata. cell wall 1 m thick, central cells slightly larger than peripheral ...
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... Polypodiisporites Thiergart Type species Polypodiisporites haardti Thiegart Polypodiisporites sp. (Fig. 10i) Material: Figured specimen, BSIP slide no. 14573. Description: Spore reniform, size 22 × 15 m, ends rounded, monolete fine extending up to 1/2 of the equatorial length, 10 m in size, exine verrucate, verrucae extending from 1.5 to 2.0 m sparsely ...
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... major Couper (Fig. 10j) Material: Figured specimen, BSIP slide no. 14574. Description: Spore trilete, lacsurae distinct, long extending from 18-23 m, size of spore 60-64 m, equatorial contour distinct, rounded, folds absent, exine 1-1.5 m thick, and ...
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... maximus (Saxena) Kar (Fig. 10k, and Kar, 1969). It also resembles L. assamicus Tripathi and Singh from Meghalaya ( Tripathi and Singh, 1985) except for a slight variation in the size of the grain and larger aperture in the present ...
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... bulbospinosus Kar (Fig. 10p) Material: Figured specimen, BSIP slide no. 14571. Description: Pollen subcircular in polar view, tricolpate, colpi slightly long, size 75-82 m, colpi broad, 22 m, colpi can be seen along the margin of the pollen; however, length of the colpi is indiscernible, exine spinose, spines well developed and profuse on the exine. Size of the ...
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... 18-21 m in size, aperture up to 4 m. Exine 1 m thick, showing finally microgranulate, grana less than 1 m. Remarks: The present pollen has a close affinity with the modern genus Carallia Roxburgh (Rhizophoraceae) in having tricolporate pollen with a microgranulate exine. However, the comparable living species C. integerrima de Candolle (Fig. 10r, s) has slightly larger pollen (30 × 36 ...
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... retipilatus Kar (Fig. 10t) Material: Figured specimen, BSIP slide no. 14576. Description: Pollen grains circular to sub-circular in polar view, sub-circular in equatorial view, diameter up to 80 m, tricolpo- rate, colpi long 18 m, wide at the margin becoming narrow up to 4 m in centre, exine 2 m thick, retipilate, pila thin about 1 m in size, closely placed ...
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The study of pollen morphology has historically allowed evolutionary biologists to assess phylogenetic relationships among Angiosperms, as well as to better understand the fossil record. During this process, pollen has mainly been studied by discretizing some of its main characteristics such as size, shape, and exine ornamentation. One large plant...
the fossil woods and leaves of the Fossil Forest Piedra Chamana represent a diverse assemblage of plants dating to 39 Ma (late Middle Eocene). the fossils are preserved in an ashfall and overlying lahar deposits near the small village of Sexi in the northern Peruvian Andes (central Cajamarca). the assemblage includes dicot wood types and leaf morph...
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... The Naredi Formation deposits from the early Eocene are exposed in this mine, together with multiple thick and thin lignite seams (Singh 2021). The Umarsar section appears to be contemporaneous with some of the lignite bearing strata found in Cambay Basin Gujarat (Mandal 1999;Singh et al. 2010Singh et al. , 2015Tripathi and Srivastava 2012;Rao et al. 2013), Kutch Basin (Kar and Saxena 1976;Kar 1978Kar , 1985Mathews et al. 2013;Sharma and Saraswati 2015;Mathews et al. 2018), Barmer (Kar 1995;Tripathi 1995Tripathi , 1997Singh 2015) and Bikaner Basins in Rajasthan (Singh and Dogra 1988). The lignites formed after and during heat episodes associated with the Paleocene and Eocene ages, just before India collided with Asia, when it was at an equatorial location (Prasad et al. 2009;Srivastava et al. 2019). ...
Fossils of the endangered sturgeons and peddlefishes are widely distributed. We here report for the first time the presence
of one of the extinct osteichthyes genus Cylindracanthus (Liedy 1856a) from the Early Eocene lignite-bearing successions of the
Kutch Basin, India. The present well preserved rostrum is characterised by numerous wedge-shaped components encircling the
central canal that runs along its length, paired at the base and each wedge contributing to the formation of a ridge. The rostrum lacks
teeth. The present find extends the palaeobiogeographical distribution of Cylindracanthus considerably and supports its Eocene age
as dental remnants preserved in Cylindracanthus sp. shows a decrease in remanent dentition and tooth bases from the Cretaceous to
the Eocene. Cylindracanthus is an useful palaeoenvironmental indicator as it has been found associated typically with deposits of
nearshore marine environments.
... The open-cast Valia Lignite Mine (latitude 21°3 0' 52' N, longitude 73° 12' 20" E) is located in the Cambay Basin, with a well-established biostratigraphic framework (Biswas, 1993;Bhandari et al., 2005;Sahni et al., 2006;Punekar and Saraswati, 2010;Rust et al., 2010;Prasad et al., 2013;Rao et al., 2013;Singh H. et al., 2015. The Cambay Shale Formation overlies the Deccan traps and is underlain by the Paleocene-lower Eocene Vagadkhol Formation (Sudhakar and Basu, 1973;Singh H. et al., 2011). ...
... The early Eocene lignite-bearing sedimentary succession of the Cambay Basin became important in recent times, because the discovery of a diverse, very well-preserved terrestrial vertebrate fauna from this basin shed light on several interesting paleobiogeographic and evolutionary aspects (Bajpai and Kapur, 2008;Kapur et al., 2017). Palynological remains and amber-bound insect fauna have also been proved important in the reconstruction of paleoenvironment (Rao et al., 2013;Singh et al., 2015). The presence of mollusk-bearing marine beds in the early Eocene argillaceous succession of Cambay Basin has been observed by many researchers (Prasad et al., 2013;Samanta et al., 2016). ...
Although gastropods are one of the most studied mollusk groups, fossil records of heterobranch microgastropods are scarce. Here,
nine species of heterobranch microgastropods are described from the early Eocene Cambay Shale of the Cambay Basin, including 8 new species: Ringicula knolli n. sp., Cylichna (Cylichna) ypresiana n. sp., Aliculastrum suratense n. sp., Odostomia concavata n. sp., Megastomia canaliculata n. sp., Megastomia carinata n. sp., Costosyrnola taptiensis n. sp., and Cingulina eamesi n. sp. This new fauna is discussed here with respect to its associated lithology, faunal association, and habitat and feeding preferences. A low diversity microgastropod fauna composed predominantly of eurytopic genera in association with similar eurytopic macro-mollusks indicates a restricted marginal marine condition. Eight out of the nine species described here are endemic. On the other hand, apart from Cingulina and Costosyrnola, which have a poor fossil record, the reported genera were widespread during the early Eocene. The heterobranchs are characterized by planktotrophic larval development, believed to benefit large scale dispersal. As the strong endemism of the species does not support this hypothesis, it is suggested here that the isolated and restricted nature of the basin could have facilitated rapid speciation in the fauna.
... Cenozoic paleoenvironments, as well as the reconstruction of past vegetation have been deduced using a range of palynological and sedimentary proxies (Willumsen, 2004;Singh et al., 2015;Zarei, 2017;El Atfy et al., 2017, 2021, 2022El Beialy et al., 2019). These proxies proffer a way by which paleoecology and paleogeography can be reconstructed. ...
This study presents the results of a comprehensive qualitative and quantitative palynological analysis
of four shallow boreholes (Epe-1, Olokonla-1, Ikoyi-1 and Badore-1) in the lower Eocene–upper Oligocene periods of
the Dahomey Basin, southwestern Nigeria. The lithostratigraphic analysis revealed three lithologies (sandy-shales,
shaly-sands and sandstones). Two most important palynological zones, the Verrucatosporites usmensis , as well as
the Magnastriatites howardi Pan-tropical zones, are delineated. First Appearance Datum (FAD) of Achomosphaera
alcicornu marked the late Eocene–early Oligocene boundaries (E/O) within the four boreholes, while FAD of Adnatosphaeridium
multispinosum defined the late Eocene–early Oligocene boundary (E/O) in Ikoy-1. Two informal
palynological assemblage zones were revealed in the four boreholes. Common occurrences of palms, mangrove,
fresh water and brackish water pollen, and pteridophyte spores with spots records of marine elements and algae
species during marine invasion suggested fluctuation from fluvio-deltaic/nearshore to marginal marine paleoenvironments.
Graphic correlation discloses that for every meter of sedimentary rock accretion within Epe-1, equally
amounted to merely 0.31 m, 0.56 m, as well as 0.47 m of sediments, which were put down in Olokonla-1, Ikoyi-1,
as well as Badore-1, respectively. These comparative rates of sedimentary rock accretion show with the purpose of
either there is fewer attrition occurrence and/or extra accommodation gap within Epe-1 than Olokonla-1, Ikoyi-1,
as well as Badore-1. The assessment of the slopes, intercept and correlation equations through graphic correlation
procedures enable the identification of four biostratigraphic events in Epe-1, Olokonla-1, Ikoyi-1, as well as
Badore-1. The findings in this investigation are necessary for depositional succession and paleoenvironmental
understandings, as well as basin investigation, and above all, to show a relationship of broadly separated boreholes.
... However, the comparative study between pollen from sediments and those extracted from amber is a fresh attempt to broaden the scope of their ecological biodiversity ( Table 1). Most of the palynomorphs, both in sediments and in amber, are common in the catalogue record mentioned earlier from the Cambay lignite sediments (Tripathi and Srivastava 2012, Rao et al. 2013Singh et al. 2014Singh et al. 2015 For the present study large quantity of amber nodules have been recovered and studied from both the lignite bed (top and bottom). In comparison to top lignite (seam 1), the bottom lignite (seam 2) contain more amber nodules and is much better in productivity of the amber biota, which indicates abundance of the resinous plants and their favorable depositional climatic condition. ...
Micro and macrofossil assemblage have been recovered and documented from the lignite beds of the Vastan lignite mines, Cambay Basin, Gujarat. These are extracted after dissolving amber pieces inclusive of pollen spores, epiphyllous fruiting fungal bodies, algal elements, insect fossils with some unidentified biotic groups. Of these, the major dominant flora belongs to angiosperm origin, in accompaniment to pteridophyte spores and fungal elements. Recorded palynotaxa viz. Proxapertites, Spinizonocolpites, Neocouperipollis and Acanthotricolpites are significant elements for tropical humid vegetation. Rich terrestrial amber palynomorphs and palynodebris suggest proximity source vegetation. Characteristic biotic interactions within the dense evergreen tropical rain forest environment is suggestive of mutual association among groups during the Early Eocene and share close affinities with those of Kutch and Barmer, Bikaner and Nagaur basins.
... The lignite-bearing sequences of the Cambay Basin have extensively been studied for describing the maceral-mineral matrix and assessing their hydrocarbon potential (Singh et al., , 2012a(Singh et al., , 2012b(Singh et al., , 2019Mallick et al., 2021;many others), biomarker compositions (Dutta et al., , 2011aMallick et al., 2021), palynoassemblages (Samant and Phadtare, 1997;Samant and Tapaswi, 2000;Mandal and Guleria, 2006;Garg et al., 2008;Tripathi and Srivastava, 2012;Prasad et al., 2013Prasad et al., , 2014Rao et al., 2013;Shukla et al., 2013;Paul et al., 2015;Singh V.P. Singh et al. International Journal of Coal Geology 248 (2021) 103866 et al., 2015, fossils wood/fruit (Shukla et al., 2013(Shukla et al., , 2015Prasad et al., 2014;Singh et al., 2015Singh et al., , 2016, fossil flowers and regional biostratigraphy framework (Sahni et al., 2004 to understand their nature, origin and depositional environments. Similarly, a large number of significant fauna (vertebrate and invertebrate) have also been recorded from the basin, providing valuable information about the biotic make-up of the geological time, e.g. ...
Lignite-bearing sequence of the Valia mine, associated with the Cambay Shale Formation (early Eocene) in Cambay Basin of western Indian State Gujarat, has been studied. An integrated approach (including organic petrography, palynofacies, palynology, entomology, geochemistry) has been adopted to assess the origin and characters of lignite deposits and their potential for the hydrocarbon generation, besides to understand the evolution and interaction of different biotic (floral-faunal) groups of the geological time. The studied samples (lignites/shales) are characterized by the domination of huminite group (av. 67 vol.%)/phytoclasts (av. 58%) along with the abundance of short-chain n-alkanes (bacterial activity). The frequencies of detrohuminite sub-group, non-biostructured elements, macrophyte-derived amorphous organic matter (AOM, mainly), and high values of proxy aqueous are indicating the elevated bacterial degradation of the OM and/or also suggest the significant contribution of the herbaceous vegetation/aquatic macrophytes/algal input to the palaeo-peat. The relative abundance of hopanes and low values of the steroids/hopanoids ratios further indicate a high bacterial activity. On the other hand, the contents of telohuminite, liptinite group, and cuticle elements together with the high carbon preference index, low proxy wax, and terrigenous/aquatic ratios confirm both terrestrial and macrophyte contributions during the peat accumulation. Fascinatingly, we have found Dipterocarpus-derived amber (fossil resin) within the lignite seam (lower) with remarkably well-preserved arthropod inclusions consisting of arachnids and insects. Generally, insects have an association with flora and provide important ecosystem functions. In the studied amber samples, the insects to arachnids (spiders and pseudoscorpions) ratio is 3:1. Their quantitative analysis indicates the dominance of the Chironomidae (non-biting midges 32%) followed by Araneae, Myrmicinae, Cecidomyiidae, and Mycetophilidae. A rare entity such as pseudoscorpions has also been found during the investigation.
The derived petrographic indices indicate that the peat-forming limno-telmatic vegetation was accumulated mainly in back-barrier settings with high groundwater (mesotrophic to rheotrophic) condition. The contents of pyrite (mainly framboidal) mineral and sulphur (0.69–2.24 wt.%) suggesting that peat had experienced the marine influx. Further, the high occurrence of funginite maceral (among inertinite group), and spores of family Microthyriaceae point towards a warm and moist condition. The plotting of palynofacies data on Tyson's APP diagram, and the values of pristane/phytane ratio suggest that the OM was primarily deposited in dysoxic to suboxic settings. The high incidence of family Chironomidae, non-biostructured and low cuticle contents indicate the proximal settings and a low energy environment like lake/pond or marshlands. However, the occurrence of granular-AOM along with high (relatively) opaque phytoclast contents in the upper part indicates that distal settings were formed at the termination of the OM accumulation. The total organic carbon (TOC) contents and hydrogen index values in the studied samples indicate a good to excellent source for the hydrocarbon generation. However, the low gross calorific value (av. 4467 cal/g), values of Tmax (mostly below 435 °C), and H/C and O/C atomic ratios showing that the samples are of immature (early diagenetic stage; huminite reflectance value: av. 0.28%) nature of the OM. Moreover, the different cross plots (hydrogen index (HI) vs. oxygen index (OI), S2 vs. TOC, HI vs. Tmax) indicate that the Valia lignite-bearing succession contains admixed type-III/II kerogen, and can generate gaseous and some liquid hydrocarbons upon maturation or with additional heating.
... These Cambay ambers have yielded more than 55 families and 100 species of arthropods, plus mosses (Heinrichs et al., 2016) and other plant remains still under investigation (Rust et al., 2010). Recently, Singh (2020) and collaborators (Singh et al., 2014(Singh et al., , 2015 have investigated dispersed pollen grains recovered by dissolving the Cambay ambers in solvent. Here we introduce some newly identified flowers from the Tadkeshwar lignite mine of Gujarat, India that provide our only confirmed fossil record of apocynaceous flowers and an important addition to our knowledge of the family's geographic distribution during the Eocene. ...
PREMISE: Early Eocene ambers of the Cambay lignite in Gujarat, India, are well known for
their diverse insect fauna and dispersed pollen, but the included flowers have received
limited attention. The fossil record of Apocynaceae is relatively poor, and the distinctive
floral characters of this family have not been recognized in the fossil record before.
METHODS: Remains of tiny flowers in amber were studied by micro-CT
scanning, reflected
light, and epifluorescence microscopy.
RESULTS: Flowers of Maryendressantha succinifera gen. et. sp. n. have actinomorphic,
pentamerous, tubular corollas 2.2–2.3
mm wide, and 1.7–2.1
mm deep with sinistrorse
aestivation and androecia consisting of a whorl of five stamens attached by short filaments
to the lower half of the corolla tube. Anthers are ovate, rounded basally and apically
tapered with their connectives convergent with one another in a conical configuration. The
pollen is globose, psilate, tricolporate, and very small (10–11
μm). The combined characters
indicate a position within the grade known as subfamily Rauvolfioideae.
CONCLUSIONS: These fossils, as the oldest remains of Rauvolfioids, complement the fossil
records of Apocynoid and Asclepioid fossil seeds from other regions, demonstrating that
the Apocynaceae were well established by the early Eocene, mostly consistent with prior
divergence estimates for the phylogeny of this family. Potential pollinators, also preserved
in the Cambay amber, include mosquitos, gnats, small moths, and stingless bees.
... It is overlain by Upper Eocene variegated bentonitic clays and fossiliferous calcareous claystone (known as Amravati Formation) followed by recent alluvium (Sahni et al., 2006). The Cambay Shale is not only a major source rock for hydrocarbon but also a treasure of fossils of land as well as marine biota (Sahni et al., 2006;Rose et al., 2009Rose et al., , 2013Kumar et al., 2010Kumar et al., , 2011Rust et al., 2010;Rao et al., 2013;Shukla and Mehrotra, 2018a, and references therein (Singh et al., 2015), and Scleicheroxylon bharuchense Singh et al. (2015) of the Sapindaceae. ...
... It is overlain by Upper Eocene variegated bentonitic clays and fossiliferous calcareous claystone (known as Amravati Formation) followed by recent alluvium (Sahni et al., 2006). The Cambay Shale is not only a major source rock for hydrocarbon but also a treasure of fossils of land as well as marine biota (Sahni et al., 2006;Rose et al., 2009Rose et al., , 2013Kumar et al., 2010Kumar et al., , 2011Rust et al., 2010;Rao et al., 2013;Shukla and Mehrotra, 2018a, and references therein (Singh et al., 2015), and Scleicheroxylon bharuchense Singh et al. (2015) of the Sapindaceae. ...
This study reports the oldest fossil record of the genus Adina, A. vastanenesis n. sp., from the early Eocene of Vastan lignite mine (Cambay Shale Formation), Surat district, Gujarat. This fossil wood is characterized by diffuse porous wood, predominantly solitary tylosed vessels, simple perforations, scanty paratracheal to diffuse to sometimes diffuse in aggregate axial parenchyma, predominantly uniseriate to occasionally biseriate rays, and non septate fibres with bordered pits and shows its best resemblance with the modern species, Adina multifolia Haviland, belonging to the tribe Naucleeae (subfamily Cinchonoideae) of the family Rubiaceae. The present discovery becomes the first fossil record of the wood of Adina, which provides an insight about the Gondwanan origin either for the genus Adina or the tribe Naucleeae and its further dispersal to Southeast Asia.
... Nummulitic clays at the top of the section at Tadkeshwar Mine recently produced an assemblage of ostracods that are predominantly middle Eocene in age (Nagori et al., 2013). The Cambay Shale Formation has yielded a great variety of plant and animal fossils (e.g., Singh et al., 2010Singh et al., , 2014Singh et al., , 2015Kumar et al., 2011;Rao et al., 2013; updated lists of the vertebrate fauna, including references, are provided later in this section). ...
... 3-6; e.g., Sahni et al., 2006;McCann, 2010;Prasad et al., 2013). The nonshelly mudstones between the two main lignites contain fish and plant remains (Rana et al., 2004;Singh et al., 2015), whereas fossil mammals are largely restricted to the lowest mudstones just above the lower lignite (see below). The thicknesses of the major lignite seams and the mudstone beds, as well as the number and thickness of minor lignite seams, vary within each mine and between mines, making precise correlation of fossiliferous beds challenging because most beds other than Lignites 1 and 2 are difficult or impossible to trace between sections. ...
... Angiosperm pollen, pteridophyte spores, and macrofossils including leaf and fruit impressions, seeds, fruits, wood fragments, and root casts (mangrove) have been found throughout the sequence preserved at Vastan Mine. Singh et al. (2015) reported leaves attributed to the Calophyllaceae (carnation family), Rutaceae (citrus family), Anacardiaceae (cashew-sumac family), Rubiaceae (coffee family), Combretaceae, and Lythraceae (crape myrtle), as well as wood representing Sapindaceae (horse chestnut, maple, lychee), Malvaceae (mallows, hybiscus), and Ebenaceae (ebony, persimmon). Seeds tentatively identified as belonging to the olive family Oleaceae (Sahni et al., 2006:pl. 1) are abundant in and near the mammal layer. ...
The anatomy of Cambaytherium, a primitive, perissodactyl-like mammal from the lower Eocene Cambay Shale Formation of Gujarat, India, is described in detail on the basis of more than 350 specimens that represent almost the entire dentition and the skeleton. Cambaytherium combines plesiomorphic traits typical of archaic ungulates such as phenacodontids with derived traits characteristic of early perissodactyls. Cambaytherium was a subcursorial animal better adapted for running than phenacodontids but less specialized than early perissodactyls. The cheek teeth are bunodont with large upper molar conules, not lophodont as in early perissodactyls; like perissodactyls, however, the lower molars have twinned metaconids and m3 has an extended hypoconulid lobe. A steep wear gradient with heavy wear in the middle of the tooth row suggests an abrasive herbivorous diet. Three species of Cambaytherium are recognized: C. thewissi (∼23 kg), C. gracilis (∼10 kg), and C. marinus (∼99 kg). Body masses were estimated from tooth size and long bone dimensions. Biostratigraphic and isotopic evidence indicates an age of ca. 54.5 Ma for the Cambay Shale vertebrate fauna, the oldest Cenozoic continental vertebrate assemblage from India, near or prior to the initial collision with Asia. Cambaytheriidae (also including Nakusia and Perissobune) and Anthracobunidae are sister taxa, constituting the clade Anthracobunia, which is sister to Perissodactyla. We unite them in a new higher taxon, Perissodactylamorpha. The antiquity and occurrence of Cambaytherium—the most primitive known perissodactylamorph—in India near or before its collision with Asia suggest that Perissodactyla evolved during the Paleocene on the Indian Plate or in peripheral areas of southern or southwestern Asia.
... During early Palaeogene time the equatorial positioning of the Indian landmass and the favorable climate and ecological conditions led to the development of thick lignite-bearing sequences along the palaeo-shoreline. Several lignite mines are operational presently in the area enabling researchers to explore the various scientific problems pertaining to biostratigraphy, evolution and expansion of flora and fauna in the Indian subcontinent using various well-established proxies/ methodologies viz palynology, palynofacies, sequences stratigraphy etc., besides organic petrography and geochemistry (Dutta et al., 2011;Saraswati et al., 2014;Singh et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2016;Stebner et al., 2017;Agrawal et al., 2017 and many others.). The present study focuses on the lignite-bearing sequence exposed in the Barsingsar mine (Bikaner-Nagaur Basin) of Rajasthan. ...
