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Geographical location of the Adana province, epicentre of the earthquake and locations of boreholes selected for liquefaction assessments
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The Adana-Ceyhan earthquake (Ms = 6.2) occurred in the southern part of Turkey on 27 June 1998 and resulted in the loss of 145 lives and extensive damage to buildings in Ceyhan town and the settlement areas in its vicinity. Soil liquefaction, ground failure due to lateral spreading and rock falls occurred. The area of Adana is characterised by a la...
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Citations
... comm. 2020), although some liquefaction and lateral spreading did occur (Aydan et al. 1998;Ulusay et al. 2000). Therefore, the fault segments of the SMF system stand out as priority areas for paleoseismological research (Duman and Emre 2013). ...
The East Anatolian fault bifurcates into a north strand and a south strand near the City of Çelikhan, Turkey. The northern strand is referred to as the Sürgü–Misis fault (SMF) system, which is divided into a number of distinct fault segments based on geological and geomorphological characteristics. However, no paleoseismological data regarding the movement history of the SMF system previously have been reported. We excavated seven trenches across four segments of the SMF system to evaluate the paleoseismological history of these fault zones. These trenches exposed structural and sedimentological evidence of paleoseismic events that had primarily strike-slip displacements with secondary normal and reverse components of motion. Geochronological dating of the trench stratigraphy and event horizons provide the time elapsed since the last event and confirmed the Holocene activity of the faults. These fault segments are individually capable of producing surfacerupturing earthquakes, but may also rupture together generating large, complex, multi–segment ruptures. However, the SMF system has not produced surface-rupturing earthquakes in the last millennia, and therefore is accumulating strain. In light of our findings, we suggest that about 1.7 m of strain has accumulated across the Karataş and Yumurtalık fault segments, which is sufficient to produce moderate to large earthquakes when released seismically. The surrounding Gulf of İskenderun is a highly industrialized district in the Eastern Mediterranean. Therefore, the data obtained from this paleoseismological investigation will contribute to a better understanding of the earthquake hazards in the region.
The article can be downloaded from the link below:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42990-020-00041-6
... Due to the difficulties associated with obtaining good soil samples, empirical approaches based on the in situ penetration test methods are widely used. Among different types of in situ tests, the SPT is generally preferred for evaluating liquefaction potential in most countries (Chu et al. 2004;Vipin et al. 2010;Dixit et al. 2012;Sharma and Hazarika 2013;Kang et al. 2014;Rahman et al. 2014) and in Turkey (Ulusay et al. 2000(Ulusay et al. , 2007Ulusay and Kuru 2004;Yilmaz and Yavuzer 2005;Yilmaz and Bagci 2006;Hasancebi and Ulusay 2006;Yalcin et al. 2008;Ulamis and Kilic 2008;Tosun et al. 2011;Akin et al. 2013;Duman et al. 2015). The liquefaction potential in this study was investigated by the simplified SPT-based method proposed by Seed and Idriss (1971) and Seed et al. (1985). ...
Soil liquefaction is one of the major causes of damage to buildings and structures during earthquakes. Very shallow groundwater table in Quaternary alluvial deposits and the seismic properties of a region can cause a significant damage to buildings and infrastructure dependent on liquefaction. Canakkale city is located in the first-degree seismic hazard zone according to the earthquake zone map of Turkey. A large part of the Canakkale settlement area is located on unconsolidated alluvium recently deposited by the Saricay River. In this survey, the liquefaction potential of the Canakkale settlement area was investigated based on the liquefaction severity index and liquefaction potential index for two possible earthquake scenarios with a moment magnitude (Mw) and peak ground acceleration (amax) of 7.5 and 319 gal and 7.0 and 222 gal, respectively. In addition, these two methods were analysed using the peak ground acceleration (amax = 141 gal) value measured at the Canakkale station during the 2014 Aegean Sea earthquake. Based on the results of the analyses, liquefaction susceptibility maps of Canakkale city were produced for different amax values. The study involved three stages: field work, laboratory testing, and generation of the liquefaction severity maps. Geotechnical boreholes at 151 locations were drilled and Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) performed. Thereafter, natural moisture content, unit weight, grain-size distribution, and Atterberg limits were determined by means of laboratory testing. Finally, Quaternary alluvial deposits in the study area were divided into five classes representing very low-to-very high liquefaction for three amax values.
... Although the focal distance to Ceyhan was 32 km, fault rupture was directed towards Ceyhan, causing heavy damage in the city as a result of the strong motion with a Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) of 0.28 g (Sucuoğlu et al., 2000). Official estimates placed the death toll at about 145 and the number of injured at about 1500 (Ulusay et al., 2000). Site-assessments demonstrated that remarkable structural damages occurred in traditional rural buildings, however many recently built multi-story residential buildings and industrial facilities also suffered from heavy damages or even collapsed (Wenk et al., 1998). ...
Taking 145 lives and causing extensive damages to structures, 1998 Ceyhan earthquake occurred on June
27 with Ms 6.2 in the southern province Adana of Turkey hitting major districts and their vicinities. Most of the
observed structural damages were assessed in traditional rural buildings, however many recently built multi-story residential buildings and industrial facilities also suffered from heavy damages or even collapsed. This study is an attempt to investigate a building stock consisting of 22 low -to mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings which experienced moderate damage during this shake. These buildings have been inspected and their detailed site investigations had been conducted by ITU-Building and Earthquake Application and Research Center. In order to perform an analytical study for this building ensemble, nonlinear dynamic and static analyses are carried out utilizing DRAIN-2DX computer program. A set of artificial ground motions is employed during the analyses and the demand parameters in terms of different structural response parameters are obtained. Finally, evaluations are performed in order to designate the boundaries for moderate damage grading in terms of specific structural demand parameters and figure out the failure mechanism of the investigated moderately damaged buildings.
... The Cukurova basin is a potential area for soil amplification because of this thick soft soil cover. Boreholes undertaken by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works of Turkey (DSI) and private companies indicate that the thickness of unconsolidated materials underlying the basin ranges from 100 to 300 m (ULUSAY et al., 2000). There are many basins in Turkey which have similar characteristics with Cukurova, such as the Bursa, Dinar and Erzincan basins (AKYOL et al., 2002;YALCINKAYA and ALPTEKIN, 2003), and most of these basins are located in the first degree earthquake regions according to the Seismic Zoning Map of Turkey. ...
... Moreover, the construction of buildings and other urban infrastructures, which are now mainly through earth-filling on alluvial deposits, is elevating the potential of earthquake and soil liquefaction related risk (Kamal and Midorikawa, 2004). It is worth noting that the structures built on alluvial plains suffered incredible damage during the Adana-Ceyhan earthquake in Turkey in 1998 (Ulusay et al., 2002). Since 80% of the buildings in Dhaka was constructed with poor geological foundations [Rahman (2003) cited in Paul and Bhuiyan], 2010), these buildings are extremely vulnerable to earthquake. ...
Using available data on relevant issues and onsite field visits, this paper documented the environmental problems associated with the unprecedented urbanisation in Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh. Analyses revealed that a rapid spatial expansion of the city has been taking place alongside the remarkable rise in urban population, simultaneously putting immense pressure on natural resource-base. Substantial changes that were observed in land use and cover are believed to be a significant factor in elevating the risk of natural hazards, particularly flooding during monsoon. In addition, air, water, and noise quality, have all become acute, and are subsequently posing uncertain liabilities to the inhabitants' health of the area. Rapid uncoordinated urbanisation gives rise to a spectacular growth of slums and squatters, making 3.4 million slum dwellers in 2006 from only 1.5 million in 1996. Achieving sustainable urban development in the DMA therefore, requires tackling the environmental problems in a rational manner.
... Moreover, the construction of buildings and other urban infrastructures, which are now mainly through earth-filling on alluvial deposits, is elevating the potential of earthquake and soil liquefaction related risk (Kamal and Midorikawa, 2004). It is worth noting that the structures built on alluvial plains suffered incredible damage during the Adana-Ceyhan earthquake in Turkey in 1998 (Ulusay et al., 2002). Since 80% of the buildings in Dhaka was constructed with poor geological foundations [Rahman (2003) cited in Paul and Bhuiyan], 2010), these buildings are extremely vulnerable to earthquake. ...
Using available data on relevant issues and onsite field visits, this paper documented the environmental problems associated with the unprecedented urbanization in Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh. Analyses revealed that a rapid spatial expansion of the city has been taking place alongside the remarkable rise in urban population, simultaneously putting immense pressure on natural resource-base. Substantial changes that were observed in land use and cover are believed to be a significant factor in elevating the risk of natural hazards, particularly flooding during monsoon. In addition, air, water, and noise quality, have all become acute, and are subsequently posing uncertain liabilities to the inhabitants' health of the area. Rapid uncoordinated urbanisation gives rise to a spectacular growth of slums and squatters, making 3.4 million slum dwellers in 2006 from only 1.5 million in 1996. Achieving sustainable urban development in the DMA therefore, requires tackling the environmental problems in a rational manner. Urbanisation and environmental degradation 119
... denotes liquefaction observed samples; 0 denotes no liquefaction observed samples. Kocaeli-Golcuk(Kasapoglu et al., 1999;Aydan et al., 2000a; JSCE, 2000;Bay and Cox, 2001;Sancio et al., 2002;and Mollamahmutoglu et al., 2003); Erzincan-Eksisu(Erken and Ulker, 1994;Ansal and Lav, 1995;and Erken et al., 1995); Cay-Eber(Ulusay et al., 2002(Ulusay et al., , 2004a; Bingol(Aydan et al., 2003;Cetin et al., 2003;and Ulusay and Aydan, 2005); Adana-Ceyhan(Erken and Okan, 1999; Adalier and Aydingun, 2000;Aydan et al., 2000b;Ulusay et al., 2000;Kuru, 2001;and Ulusay and Kuru, 2004). ...
The Izmit Basin was formed as a result of activity on the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ). A Northern strand of the NAFZ crosses the basin in an east-west direction and is seismically active. Sand and silty sand deposits are widely spread across the alluvial basin. Groundwater levels vary between 1 m and 9.5 m below the land surface. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)– and Standard Penetration Test (SPT)–based liquefac-tion methods were used for soil liquefaction assessment. The ANN test session resulted in liquefaction prediction values from 0 to 1 for 46 samples. Twenty-nine samples with values greater than 0.8 were categorized as a high liquefaction prediction class. Two samples with values between 0.8 and 0.2 were categorized as a marginal liquefaction prediction class. Fifteen samples with values less than 0.2 were categorized as a low liquefaction prediction class. The SPT-based method evaluated 47 borings with coarse-grained soils for factor of safety (FS) against liquefaction and settle-ments and defined 37 borings with a FS value of less than 1. Overall total average settlement was calculated to be 5.4 cm. Coarse-grained soils with FS values of less than 1 were evaluated for liquefaction potential (P L) based on FS and depth of the soils. Calculations of P L resulted in very low (21 percent), low (64 percent), and high (15 percent) liquefaction potentials. The SPT-based results and ANN outputs were imported into ArcGIS to map the liquefaction resistance, seismic settlements, liquefaction potential, and liquefaction prediction for the study area.
... During the 1998 Adana-Ceyhan earthquake, the structural damage observed in low-rise (1-2 storey) buildings was not uniform although they were similar in terms of their structural style and material (Acar, 1998;Çetin and Demirtaş, 1999;Ulusay et al., 2000) (Fig. 2). This paper focuses on whether the observed differences in damage can be attributed to variation in engineering and dynamic properties of the caliche deposits on which most of these buildings are founded. ...
Despite the epcientral distance of 40 km significant structural damage was observed during the Adana–Ceyhan earthquake (Mw = 6.2) of 27 June 1998 in the countryside where mostly low-rise (1–2 storey) buildings are founded on caliche deposits. However, the observed damage was not uniform in that similar buildings located on other caliche sites were only slightly damaged. This study evaluates the engineering and dynamic behavior of the caliche deposits in an effort to explain the observed variation in damage. Horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios were obtained from both microtremor measurements and strong motion records of aftershocks. Furthermore, ground amplification was modeled using one-dimensional site response analysis based on the soil profiles that were obtained from previously available geotechnical and geophysical data. The results compared with the observed damage distribution show that significant amplification does not occur on most of the caliche deposits for frequencies up to 10 Hz. Moreover, the largest amplification factor of about 5 was found at frequency of 7.5 Hz in Kılıçlı village in which mostly low-rise (1–2 storey) buildings are located. Results of 1-D linear site response analyses suggest that 1 or 2 m thick hardpan lying on top has no significant effect on soil amplification other than a slight shift in fundamental frequency. Amplification is most significantly influenced by the thickness of the softpan.
... Also another recent and important earthquake occured on 27 June 1998 in Adana–Ceyhan region with a magnitude 6.3 (on the Richter Scale). This Adana– Abdiog ˘lu earthquake caused 146 life loss, heavy damages to 11,000 houses and collapsing of 1,300 buildings (Adalier and Aydingun 2001; Ulusay et al. 2000; C ¸ ag ˘atay 2005). This earthquake showed that Adana and its vicinity are one of the most important seismic regions of Turkey. ...
The current study deals with a catastrophic landslide that occurred due to heavy rainfall in Adana, Southern Turkey in 2001. The research area, which is one of the largest populated districts in Adana, and one of the most tropical places between the Middle East and southern Europe, has about 25,000 people. On the basis of geological and geotechnical surveys, the landslide phenomena and the effects of landslide are examined. To understand the slide mechanism of the landslide, ground reconnaissance, laboratory and in situ tests are conducted. It is observed that the clayey and silty layers of the site are heavily saturated due to extreme rainfall in winter, and consequently sheared. The landslide consists of a block sliding in the upper portions and a debris flow/soil flow component around the margins of the sliding blocks in the middle parts and at the toe. Although there was no loss of human life, it has caused significant economic losses. Besides, it is determined that if precautions are not taken around the landslide area, larger landslides could definitely occur in the future.
... The Cukurova basin is a potential area for soil amplification because of this thick soft soil cover. Boreholes undertaken by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works of Turkey (DSI) and private companies indicate that the thickness of unconsolidated materials underlying the basin ranges from 100 to 300 m (ULUSAY et al., 2000). There are many basins in Turkey which have similar characteristics with Cukurova, such as the Bursa, Dinar and Erzincan basins (AKYOL et al., 2002;YALCINKAYA and ALPTEKIN, 2003), and most of these basins are located in the first degree earthquake regions according to the Seismic Zoning Map of Turkey. ...
The site response at 15 stations in the Adana-Ceyhan region (Southern Turkey) is calculated from the recordings of aftershocks of June 27, 1998 Adana-Ceyhan earthquake (M
S
=6.2) by using the Standard Spectral Ratio (SSR) and the Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR) methods. While the two methods are in good harmony at a few stations in determining the site effects, they show differences on the estimated amplifications or on the site resonance frequencies at most stations. It was not clear which one of the two methods underestimates or overestimates the amplification values. We observe that at some stations, where the local site conditions are rather complex, the vertical component records are strongly influenced from the local soil conditions. Thus, the HVSR method fails at these stations. The SSR method underestimates the amplifications at some stations since the rock site, selected as reference site, has its own site response and/or the path correction we applied, considering the geometrical spreading factor only, is insufficient. At the sites where high intensity values were observed, we found high amplifications. The fundamental soil frequencies characterize the damage properties observed in the Adana-Ceyhan earthquake. The fundamental soil frequency is nearly at 1.1 Hz at the Ceyhan site, where severe damage was observed in the 5–6 story buildings, while the fundamental soil frequency is between 3–6 Hz at the Adana site, where damage was in the low-story buildings. Therefore, in addition to inefficient construction practices, it is clear that the resonance effects have also contributed to the observed damage.
