Fig 3 - uploaded by Jorge Ortega
Content may be subject to copyright.
— Geographic distribution of Tamandua mexicana . Subspe- cies are: 1, T. m. mexicana ; 2, T. m. opistholeuca ; 3, T. m. instabilis ; and 4, T. m. punensis. Map is modified from Cervantes and Villa (2003); Hall (1981); and Wetzel (1985). An asterisk (*) indicates a report of T. mexicana in the northern portion of French Guiana (Voss et al. 2001).
Source publication
Tamandua mexicana (Saussure, 1860) is a medium-sized anteater commonly known as the northern tamandua or oso hormiguero. It has an elongated head and is toothless, with a slender and sticky tongue and a prehensile tail. Its fur has a black patch across the back like a vest worn backward against a pale yellow background. It is present from southern...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... amarillo, susurete, tamandu ́ (Spanish, Colombia); oso mielero, perico ligero (Spanish, Honduras); brazo fuerte, oso hormiguero com ́ n (Spanish, Mexico); osito hormiguero norten ̃ o (Spanish, Peru); osito melero zuliano (Spanish, Venezuela); baakakai, kajkai (Bar ́, Colombia); sugachu (Kuna, Panama); chab (Mayan, Central America); wingku (Miskito, Nicaragua); k ́ rquin (Tawahka, Honduras): tamandu ́-mirim (Portuguese); N ̈ rdlicher Tamandua (German); and tamandua mexicain (French—Superina and Aguiar 2006). The molecular clock analyses presented by Delsuc et al. (2004) indicated that within anteaters, the lineages leading to the pygmy anteater ( Cyclopes ) emerged in the middle Eocene around 40 million years ago, whereas Tamandua and Myrmecophaga lineages diverged 30 million years ago in the late Miocene. Phylogenetic relationships within Xenarthra were established by using Bayesian approaches to DNA sequences. The separation between the 2 genera of anteaters ( Myrmecophaga and Tamandua ) was estimated at 10 6 2 million years ago (Delsuc et al. 2004). Tamandua mexicana (Fig. 1) can be distinguished from the southern tamandua ( T. tetradactyla ) by the presence of a large patch across the back, like a vest worn backward, against a pale yellow background, whereas T. tetradactyla has fur that varies from uniformly golden, brown or black, to partially or completely black vested (Eisenberg 1989; Eisenberg and Redford 1989; Linares 1998; Lubin 1983; Wetzel 1975). In addition, T. mexicana is slightly smaller than T. tetradactyla ; head and body lengths are approximately 563 mm and 593 mm, and body masses are 3.2–5.4 kg and 3.4–7.0 kg, respectively (Eisenberg 1989; Eisenberg and Redford 1989; Wetzel 1975). Differentiation also can be made based on skull morphology: T. mexicana has 4 pairs of orbital foramina and the posterior border of the infraorbital foramen is distinctly crescent shaped; T. tetradactyla has 3 pairs of orbital foramina and the posterior border of the infraorbital foramen has an incomplete crescent, with a lateral border distinctly posterior to the medial border (Wetzel 1985). The caudal vertebrae are composed of 40–42 bones in T. mexicana , whereas in T. tetradactyla the tail has 31–39 bones (Wetzel 1975). Tamandua mexicana is a medium-sized anteater with an elongated and tubular head, is toothless, and has a long, slender and sticky tongue, small eyes, and short, rounded ears. The tail is prehensile, nearly longer than the head and body, furred dorsally for about one-third of its length, but naked and with dark irregular spots on the distal two-thirds (Eisenberg 1989). The fur of T. mexicana is invariably black vested, covered with a short, dense, slightly rigid, and bright coat (Eisenberg 1989; Linares 1998; Lubin 1983; Wetzel 1985); there is no difference in color pattern between males and females (Linares 1998). Young tamanduas, however, have dorsal fur longer than that of adults, and golden hair mixed within the black coat (Wetzel 1975). T. mexicana has 5 conspicuous digits on the hind foot and 4 digits on the forefoot; the middle digit of the forefoot has an extremely large claw (Wetzel 1985). External measurements (mm) for adults are as follows ( n , range): total length, 1,111 (60, 1,020–1,300); length of tail, 544 (59, 400–675); length of hind foot, 98 (56, 80–110); length of ear, 44 (42, 35–51); and body mass, 4.3 kg (15, 3.2–5.4 kg— Genoways and Timm 2003; Wetzel 1985). Cranial measurements (range in mm), only for adults (Cervantes and Villa 2003; Genoways and Timm 2003; Reeve 1942; Wetzel 1975, 1985; n 5 98), are: total length, 114.8–138.9; occipitonasal length, 124.9–128.5; postorbital breadth, 23.9–24.0; breadth of braincase, 39.8–41.6; mastoid breadth, 34.1–35.1; palatal length, 96.3–102.8; rostral length, 59.3–60.7; length of mandible, 101.9–107.4; condylobasal length, 117.7–131.1; nasal length, 46–50; cranial box breadth, 39.0–42.4; and interorbital constriction, 23.0–24.6 (Fig. 2). T. mexicana opistholeuca from Nicaragua is sexually dimorphic in size (based on a sample of 3 males and 6 females—Genoways and Timm 2003). Males were larger for breadth of braincase, mastoid breadth, and rostral length (females were larger for 5 of the 9 cranial measurements—occipitonasal length, condylobasal length, length of nasals, palatal length, and length of mandible); females were on average larger for total length, length of tail, length of hind foot, and length of ear. Tamandua mexicana is present from southern Mexico through all of Central America to the western Andes in South America (Fig. 3). T. mexicana mexicana is distributed along the Pacific coast of Mexico, the coast of the Mexican Gulf, and the Peninsula of Yucatan to Honduras; T. m. opistholeuca ranges throughout Central America to almost the entirety of Colombia; T. m. instabilis occurs in the western part of Venezuela to the border with Colombia; and T. m. punensis is located along the west coast of Ecuador and in Peru (Fig. 3). In general, the species’ range includes northern and western Colombia, northwestern Venezuela, western Ecuador, and northwestern Peru (Eisenberg 1989; Emmons 1997; Hall 1981; Reid 1997; Tirira 2007; Wetzel 1985). A specimen of T. mexicana is reported from the northern portion of French Guiana (Voss et al. 2001), but not from the intermediary northeast area (eastern Venezuela, Suriname, and Guyana). In Mexico, it has been reported from Colima southward on the Pacific Coast and from Veracruz on the Mexican Gulf Coast, south through Chiapas and the Yucatan Peninsula (Burton and Ceballos 2006; Cuar ́ n 2005). The species also has been reported from Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Reid 1997). The elevational range is 0–2,000 m, but most records are from below 1,000 m (Cuar ́ n 2005; Cuervo-D ́az et al. 1986; Eisenberg 1989; Tirira 2007). In some areas of its distribution T. mexicana occurs in sympatry with T. tetradactyla (Eisenberg 1989; Linares 1998; Wetzel 1985). The oldest fossil record for an anteater was collected from the Colhuehuapian age (in South America, about 20 million years ago). Anteaters are well known since the Santacrucian South American Land Mammal Age (in South America, approximately 16 million years ago—Delsuc et al. 2004). The fossil record for Tamandua is known from the Pleistocene and Recent (McDonald et al. 2008; McKenna and Bell 1997; Simpson 1945); however, not for Tamandua mexicana specifically (Siriano 1996). Neotamandua is considered a parallel ancestral form for the 2 species of small anteaters (McDonald et al. 2008). Anatomical modifications of anteaters are associated with an ability to capture insects and to climb. Modifications of the skull of Tamandua mexicana allow the use of its slender, elongated tongue (McDonald et al. 2008). The skull is tubular and elongate, the zygomatic arch is incomplete, and the dentary bone is toothless, elongate, curved, and fragile. Pterygoids are long and the hard palate is extended back to the caudal tympanic region (McDonald et al. 2008; Reiss 1997). In the otic region, mastoid exposure is minimal and the styloid and paraoccipital processes are not pronounced. The oral cavity of T. mexicana is separated from the nasal cavity by the hard palate and contains the free portion of the tongue. Jaw musculature is reduced but the musculature of the tongue is greatly developed and it originates in the posterior end of the sternum (Naples 1985; Reiss 1997). The tongue of T. mexicana is long, slender, protrusible, and is covered with sticky saliva secreted by the enlarged and fused submaxillary and parotid salivary glands (Reiss 1997). The hyoid apparatus is robust and well ossified, where the corpus hyoideum and the posterior cornu form a single fused element (Reiss 1997). The pharynx is divided by the soft palate into the oropharynx and the nasopharynx. The soft palate is extremely long extending from the caudal pterygoid shelves to the 5th cervical vertebra. The floor of the nasopharynx is composed of a facial muscle, containing the levator veli palatini, medialis veli palatini, mylohyoideus, stylopharyngeus, and palatopharyngeous (Reiss 1997). The lateral walls of the oropharynx contain the cervical portion of the mylohyoideus; inserted in the lateral muscle, there is a well-developed double salivary duct. The floor of the oropharynx consists of a mucosa with a poorly developed hyoglossus muscle. The laryngopharynx is formed by fibers of the palatopharyngeus. The sternoglossal space is well defined and lies ventral to the oropharynx and hyoid apparatus; the lateral and ventral boundaries of this space are muscular rostrally and consist of the mylohyoideus, interhyoideus, and geniohyoideus; finally the ventral boundary of the space is formed by an aponeurosis (Reiss 1997). Naples (1985) presents a detailed description of the facial musculature and Reiss (1997) describes the feeding apparatus musculature. A variable number of vertebrae have been reported for T. mexicana . Gaudin (1999) reports on 2 specimens of T. mexicana , 1 with 17 thoracic and the other with 18 thoracic vertebrae. Both specimens had 2 lumbar vertebrae. Flower (1885) reports 1 thoracic and 3 lumbar vertebrae in specimens of Tamandua . Compared with other cingulates, T. mexicana has less-modified thoracic vertebrae; the neural spines are uniform in height, robust, and elongated anteroposteriorly; the zygapophyseal articular facets are widely separated from the midline of the vertebral lamina; and the zygapophyseal facets are wide mediolaterally. In juvenile individuals, the neural arches of the sacral vertebrae are unfused (Gaudin 1999). Morphology of the tympanic region of Tamandua and other myrmecophagids is unique among members of the Pilosa. The alterations in morphology are most likely the result of the feeding style associated with their almost exclusive diet of termintes and ants (Patterson et al. 1992). Placement of the eustachian tube is unusual in T. ...
Context 2
... OMENCLATURAL N OTES . Tamandua is from the Brazilian Portuguese term tamand ́ a that is derived from the yupitaa language and means ants; mundeu means trap, which is an allusion to its feeding habits (Cervantes and Villa 2003). Other vernacular names are (language, country): banded anteater (English, Belize); hormiguero arbor ́cola (Spanish, Central America); oso amarillo, susurete, tamandu ́ (Spanish, Colombia); oso mielero, perico ligero (Spanish, Honduras); brazo fuerte, oso hormiguero com ́ n (Spanish, Mexico); osito hormiguero norten ̃ o (Spanish, Peru); osito melero zuliano (Spanish, Venezuela); baakakai, kajkai (Bar ́, Colombia); sugachu (Kuna, Panama); chab (Mayan, Central America); wingku (Miskito, Nicaragua); k ́ rquin (Tawahka, Honduras): tamandu ́-mirim (Portuguese); N ̈ rdlicher Tamandua (German); and tamandua mexicain (French—Superina and Aguiar 2006). The molecular clock analyses presented by Delsuc et al. (2004) indicated that within anteaters, the lineages leading to the pygmy anteater ( Cyclopes ) emerged in the middle Eocene around 40 million years ago, whereas Tamandua and Myrmecophaga lineages diverged 30 million years ago in the late Miocene. Phylogenetic relationships within Xenarthra were established by using Bayesian approaches to DNA sequences. The separation between the 2 genera of anteaters ( Myrmecophaga and Tamandua ) was estimated at 10 6 2 million years ago (Delsuc et al. 2004). Tamandua mexicana (Fig. 1) can be distinguished from the southern tamandua ( T. tetradactyla ) by the presence of a large patch across the back, like a vest worn backward, against a pale yellow background, whereas T. tetradactyla has fur that varies from uniformly golden, brown or black, to partially or completely black vested (Eisenberg 1989; Eisenberg and Redford 1989; Linares 1998; Lubin 1983; Wetzel 1975). In addition, T. mexicana is slightly smaller than T. tetradactyla ; head and body lengths are approximately 563 mm and 593 mm, and body masses are 3.2–5.4 kg and 3.4–7.0 kg, respectively (Eisenberg 1989; Eisenberg and Redford 1989; Wetzel 1975). Differentiation also can be made based on skull morphology: T. mexicana has 4 pairs of orbital foramina and the posterior border of the infraorbital foramen is distinctly crescent shaped; T. tetradactyla has 3 pairs of orbital foramina and the posterior border of the infraorbital foramen has an incomplete crescent, with a lateral border distinctly posterior to the medial border (Wetzel 1985). The caudal vertebrae are composed of 40–42 bones in T. mexicana , whereas in T. tetradactyla the tail has 31–39 bones (Wetzel 1975). Tamandua mexicana is a medium-sized anteater with an elongated and tubular head, is toothless, and has a long, slender and sticky tongue, small eyes, and short, rounded ears. The tail is prehensile, nearly longer than the head and body, furred dorsally for about one-third of its length, but naked and with dark irregular spots on the distal two-thirds (Eisenberg 1989). The fur of T. mexicana is invariably black vested, covered with a short, dense, slightly rigid, and bright coat (Eisenberg 1989; Linares 1998; Lubin 1983; Wetzel 1985); there is no difference in color pattern between males and females (Linares 1998). Young tamanduas, however, have dorsal fur longer than that of adults, and golden hair mixed within the black coat (Wetzel 1975). T. mexicana has 5 conspicuous digits on the hind foot and 4 digits on the forefoot; the middle digit of the forefoot has an extremely large claw (Wetzel 1985). External measurements (mm) for adults are as follows ( n , range): total length, 1,111 (60, 1,020–1,300); length of tail, 544 (59, 400–675); length of hind foot, 98 (56, 80–110); length of ear, 44 (42, 35–51); and body mass, 4.3 kg (15, 3.2–5.4 kg— Genoways and Timm 2003; Wetzel 1985). Cranial measurements (range in mm), only for adults (Cervantes and Villa 2003; Genoways and Timm 2003; Reeve 1942; Wetzel 1975, 1985; n 5 98), are: total length, 114.8–138.9; occipitonasal length, 124.9–128.5; postorbital breadth, 23.9–24.0; breadth of braincase, 39.8–41.6; mastoid breadth, 34.1–35.1; palatal length, 96.3–102.8; rostral length, 59.3–60.7; length of mandible, 101.9–107.4; condylobasal length, 117.7–131.1; nasal length, 46–50; cranial box breadth, 39.0–42.4; and interorbital constriction, 23.0–24.6 (Fig. 2). T. mexicana opistholeuca from Nicaragua is sexually dimorphic in size (based on a sample of 3 males and 6 females—Genoways and Timm 2003). Males were larger for breadth of braincase, mastoid breadth, and rostral length (females were larger for 5 of the 9 cranial measurements—occipitonasal length, condylobasal length, length of nasals, palatal length, and length of mandible); females were on average larger for total length, length of tail, length of hind foot, and length of ear. Tamandua mexicana is present from southern Mexico through all of Central America to the western Andes in South America (Fig. 3). T. mexicana mexicana is distributed along the Pacific coast of Mexico, the coast of the Mexican Gulf, and the Peninsula of Yucatan to Honduras; T. m. opistholeuca ranges throughout Central America to almost the entirety of Colombia; T. m. instabilis occurs in the western part of Venezuela to the border with Colombia; and T. m. punensis is located along the west coast of Ecuador and in Peru (Fig. 3). In general, the species’ range includes northern and western Colombia, northwestern Venezuela, western Ecuador, and northwestern Peru (Eisenberg 1989; Emmons 1997; Hall 1981; Reid 1997; Tirira 2007; Wetzel 1985). A specimen of T. mexicana is reported from the northern portion of French Guiana (Voss et al. 2001), but not from the intermediary northeast area (eastern Venezuela, Suriname, and Guyana). In Mexico, it has been reported from Colima southward on the Pacific Coast and from Veracruz on the Mexican Gulf Coast, south through Chiapas and the Yucatan Peninsula (Burton and Ceballos 2006; Cuar ́ n 2005). The species also has been reported from Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Reid 1997). The elevational range is 0–2,000 m, but most records are from below 1,000 m (Cuar ́ n 2005; Cuervo-D ́az et al. 1986; Eisenberg 1989; Tirira 2007). In some areas of its distribution T. mexicana occurs in sympatry with T. tetradactyla (Eisenberg 1989; Linares 1998; Wetzel 1985). The oldest fossil record for an anteater was collected from the Colhuehuapian age (in South America, about 20 million years ago). Anteaters are well known since the Santacrucian South American Land Mammal Age (in South America, approximately 16 million years ago—Delsuc et al. 2004). The fossil record for Tamandua is known from the Pleistocene and Recent (McDonald et al. 2008; McKenna and Bell 1997; Simpson 1945); however, not for Tamandua mexicana specifically (Siriano 1996). Neotamandua is considered a parallel ancestral form for the 2 species of small anteaters (McDonald et al. 2008). Anatomical modifications of anteaters are associated with an ability to capture insects and to climb. Modifications of the skull of Tamandua mexicana allow the use of its slender, elongated tongue (McDonald et al. 2008). The skull is tubular and elongate, the zygomatic arch is incomplete, and the dentary bone is toothless, elongate, curved, and fragile. Pterygoids are long and the hard palate is extended back to the caudal tympanic region (McDonald et al. 2008; Reiss 1997). In the otic region, mastoid exposure is minimal and the styloid and paraoccipital processes are not pronounced. The oral cavity of T. mexicana is separated from the nasal cavity by the hard palate and contains the free portion of the tongue. Jaw musculature is reduced but the musculature of the tongue is greatly developed and it originates in the posterior end of the sternum (Naples 1985; Reiss 1997). The tongue of T. mexicana is long, slender, protrusible, and is covered with sticky saliva secreted by the enlarged and fused submaxillary and parotid salivary glands (Reiss 1997). The hyoid apparatus is robust and well ossified, where the corpus hyoideum and the posterior cornu form a single fused element (Reiss 1997). The pharynx is divided by the soft palate into the oropharynx and the nasopharynx. The soft palate is extremely long extending from the caudal pterygoid shelves to the 5th cervical vertebra. The floor of the nasopharynx is composed of a facial muscle, containing the levator veli palatini, medialis veli palatini, mylohyoideus, stylopharyngeus, and palatopharyngeous (Reiss 1997). The lateral walls of the oropharynx contain the cervical portion of the mylohyoideus; inserted in the lateral muscle, there is a well-developed double salivary duct. The floor of the oropharynx consists of a mucosa with a poorly developed hyoglossus muscle. The laryngopharynx is formed by fibers of the palatopharyngeus. The sternoglossal space is well defined and lies ventral to the oropharynx and hyoid apparatus; the lateral and ventral boundaries of this space are muscular rostrally and consist of the mylohyoideus, interhyoideus, and geniohyoideus; finally the ventral boundary of the space is formed by an aponeurosis (Reiss 1997). Naples (1985) presents a detailed description of the facial musculature and Reiss (1997) describes the feeding apparatus musculature. A variable number of vertebrae have been reported for T. mexicana . Gaudin (1999) reports on 2 specimens of T. mexicana , 1 with 17 thoracic and the other with 18 thoracic vertebrae. Both specimens had 2 lumbar vertebrae. Flower (1885) reports 1 thoracic and 3 lumbar vertebrae in specimens of Tamandua . Compared with other cingulates, T. mexicana has less-modified thoracic vertebrae; the neural spines are uniform in height, robust, and elongated anteroposteriorly; the zygapophyseal articular facets are widely separated from the midline of the vertebral lamina; and the zygapophyseal facets are wide mediolaterally. In juvenile individuals, ...
Similar publications
Conflicts between protected area goals and those of other actors with land use plans are quite common. Normally the actors are farmers, concerned for their production methods, poor people searching for land or food, large industrial or hydropower businesses. The case is different for the dunes of Concón, located in the tongues of the Central-Chilea...
Citations
... Although the elbow flexors did not have the highest mass in T. mexicana, they do contribute to the feeding habits in this species, such as the need to remove bark from trees and dig to find food (Navarrete & Ortega, 2011;Vélez-García et al., 2021), actions that require force to flex the elbow (Scheidt et al., 2022;Taylor, 1978). ...
Tamandua mexicana is an anteater species native from Mexico to Peru. This species is of great evolutionary interest because it belongs to one of the oldest clades of placental mammals in the American continent. This study aimed to describe the origin, insertion, and arterial supply of the intrinsic shoulder and brachial muscles of T. mexicana . We also compared the masses of the functional groups. Gross dissections were performed on both thoracic limbs of 13 cadavers. ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was used for statistical analyses. The subscapularis muscle presents a hiatus to the common tendon of the caput breve of the biceps brachii and c oracobrachialis muscles. A variant accessory muscle, the m. articularis humeri lateralis , was found on the lateral surface of the shoulder joint. M. deltoideus pars acromialis has two bellies. The teres major muscle is perforated by the aponeurotic origin of the m. tensor fasciae antebrachii . The triceps brachii has two capita longi . The caput mediale is fused with the m. anconeus medialis . The caput laterale can have an accessory belly as an anatomical variant. Among the functional groups, a significant difference was found between the elbow extensors and flexors, with the latter having the lowest mass. In conclusion, the intrinsic muscles of T. mexicana presented unique features for the species, as well as arrangements in mass distribution that evidence a possible evolutionary convergence among species of the Superorder Xenarthra.
... Species with very specialized habitat requirements, such as some species of sloths (also Xenarthra, as armadillos and anteaters), were predicted to expand their distribution under climate change, but experience a greater reduction due to habitat loss in synergy with climate change (Tourinho and Sinervo, 2022a). Tamanduas can tolerate some degree of environmental disturbance but spend almost half of their time on tree canopies, hence tree cover can affect their behavior and potentially their survival (Navarrete and Ortega, 2011). Armadillos and pangolins are greatly threatened by habitat loss (Superina et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2022). ...
... Tree shrews (Scandentia) build nests in underground cavities but also build open nests of woven plant fibres [75] that Ross [21] suggested are used for maternity purposes. In the Pilosa, anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla and Tamandua mexicana) and armadillos (Euphractus sexcinctus and Dasypus novemcinctus) are reported to park their offspring in nests of leaves and grass in a burrow [76,77]. Pangolins (Pholidota) use maternity sites that they line with vegetation both in captivity [78] and in the wild [79]. ...
Nesting behaviour in mammals has been investigated in a wide variety of species but to date there has not been any scholarly review of the incidence and roles of these nests. Not all mammals build nests but, while some large species regularly build nests, nest-building behaviour is more commonly associated with small mammals weighing less than a kilogram. Quantitative data for the amounts of different materials used in a nest are rarely reported but mammal nests are typically constructed from fresh (rather than dead) plant materials. Animal-derived materials seem to be rare in nests, but anthropogenic materials are reported. Few studies have examined the roles these different materials play but more physically robust materials provide support for the structure. Many mammal nests have maternity roles, but a variety of other roles were recognized. A wide range of mammalian orders use nests for resting and environmental protection. Less common roles were as sites for torpor or hibernation, or as a refuge from predation, or the materials may have anti-parasite properties. These different roles were often not mutually exclusive. It is hoped that this review will stimulate interest in the functional properties of mammalian nests. It also suggests various themes that would be interesting areas for future research.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘The evolutionary ecology of nests: a cross-taxon approach’.
... Both individuals were found in the same locality in Panama (Fig. 3) and the two animals interacted without apparent agonistic behavior. Tamandua mexicana is a solitary and territorial species (Navarrete and Ortega 2011) and the occurrence of these individuals together, as well as their apparently similar age (both adults), indicates that these individuals are possibly siblings. The survival of erythristic individuals of T. mexicana to adulthood is unexpected, since these animals, like leucistic and albino individuals, are conspicuous in their habitat and presumably are more exposed to predation and hunting. ...
Tamandua Gray, 1825 contains two species of anteaters: Tamandua mexicana (Saussure, 1860), which occurs in southern Mexico, throughout Central America and south to the west of the Andes in South America, and Tamandua tetradactyla (Linnaeus, 1758), widely distributed in South America, from Venezuela to northern Argentina, as well as Trinidad and Tobago. Historically, different coloration patterns have been attributed to the coat of Tamandua, with T. mexicana typically showing a partial or complete dark “vest” on the dorsal portion of the body, whereas T. tetradactyla can show a complete, partial, or absent vest and a coat varying from golden, pale yellow and pale gray to brown or black. These different coat colors are sometimes treated as inherent characteristics of subspecies of Tamandua. Here, we review color variation in Tamandua and describe six chromatic disorders for the genus: albinism, leucism, “brown” variation, melanism (partial and total), xanthochromism (partial and total) and, for the first time for anteaters, erythrism. In addition, we detail the morphological expression and geographic distribution of these anomalies in populations of Tamandua from Central and South America.
KEY WORDS:
Coat color variation; hyperpigmentation; hypopigmentation; Mammalia; Vermilingua
... Many aspects of Tamandua spp. biology remain to be elucidated [21,22], and their activity and behavioural pattern are no exceptions [17,23]. In the wild, T. tetradactyla individuals have been observed to be active during both light and dark phases. ...
Accelerometers are a technology that is increasingly used in the evaluation of animal behaviour. A tri-axial accelerometer attached to a vest was used on Tamandua tetradactyla individuals (n = 10) at Biodiversity Park. First, the influence of using a vest on the animals’ behaviour was evaluated (ABA-type: A1 and A2, without a vest; B, with a vest; each stage lasted 24 h), and no changes were detected. Second, their behaviour was monitored using videos and the accelerometer simultaneously (experimental room, 20 min). The observed behaviours were correlated with the accelerometer data, and summary measures (X, Y and Z axes) were obtained. Additionally, the overall dynamic body acceleration was calculated, determining a threshold to discriminate activity/inactivity events (variance = 0.0055). Then, based on a 24 h complementary test (video sampling every 5 min), the sensitivity (85.91%) and precision (100%) of the accelerometer were assessed. Animals were exposed to an ABA-type experimental design: A1 and A2: complex enclosure; B: decreased complexity (each stage lasted 24 h). An increase in total activity (%) was revealed using the accelerometer (26.15 ± 1.50, 29.29 ± 2.25, and 35.36 ± 3.15, respectively). Similar activity levels were detected using video analysis. The results demonstrate that the use of the accelerometer is reliable to determine the activity. Considering that the zoo-housed lesser anteaters exhibit a cathemeral activity pattern, this study contributes to easily monitoring their activities and responses to different management procedures supporting welfare programs, as well as ex situ conservation.
... This striking result is hard to interpret. No major ecological differences were reported between T. mexicana and the other Tamandua species studied, T. tetradactyla (Brown 2011;Hayssen 2011;Navarrete and Ortega 2011;Chiapero et al. 2021). Among their few behavioral differences, one can cite the larger home range of T. tetradactyla (Montgomery 1985;Rodrigues et al. 2001;Brown 2011) and an activity budget of T. mexicana that is characterized by a greater percentage time spent feeding compared to locomotion (Brown 2011). ...
Identifying ecomorphological convergence examples is a central focus in evolutionary biology. In xenarthrans, slow arboreality independently arose at least three times, in the two genera of ‘tree sloths’, Bradypus and Choloepus, and the silky anteater, Cyclopes. This specialized locomotor ecology is expectedly reflected by distinctive morpho-functional convergences. Cyclopes, although sharing several ecological features with ‘tree sloths’, do not fully mirror the latter in their outstandingly similar suspensory slow arboreal locomotion. We hypothesized that the morphology of Cyclopes is closer to ‘tree sloths’ than to anteaters, but yet distinct, entailing that slow arboreal xenarthrans evolved through ‘incomplete’ convergence. In a multivariate trait space, slow arboreal xenarthrans are hence expected to depart from their sister taxa evolving toward the same area, but not showing extensive phenotypical overlap, due to the distinct position of Cyclopes. Conversely, a pattern of ‘complete’ convergence (i.e., widely overlapping morphologies) is hypothesized for ‘tree sloths’. Through phylogenetic comparative methods, we quantified humeral and femoral convergence in slow arboreal xenarthrans, including a sample of extant and extinct non-slow arboreal xenarthrans. Through 3D geometric morphometrics, cross-sectional properties (CSP) and trabecular architecture, we integratively quantified external shape, diaphyseal anatomy and internal epiphyseal structure. Several traits converged in slow arboreal xenarthrans, especially those pertaining to CSP. Phylomorphospaces and quantitative convergence analyses substantiated the expected patterns of ‘incomplete’ and ‘complete’ convergence for slow arboreal xenarthrans and ‘tree sloths’, respectively. This work, highlighting previously unidentified convergence patterns, emphasizes the value of an integrative multi-pronged quantitative approach to cope with complex mechanisms underlying ecomorphological convergence.
... The genus Tamandua, comprising two allopatric but morphological similar species (Hayssen, 2011;Navarrete and Ortega, 2011), belongs to the Xenarthra, that also include armadillos and sloths (Gibb et al., 2016). Together with the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and the silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus), tamanduas form the family Myrmecophagidae, characterised by extra joints in the lumbar vertebrae and the lack of teeth (Gaudin, 2003;Gaudin and McDonald, 2008;Oliver et al., 2016;Hautier et al., 2018). ...
... Together with the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and the silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus), tamanduas form the family Myrmecophagidae, characterised by extra joints in the lumbar vertebrae and the lack of teeth (Gaudin, 2003;Gaudin and McDonald, 2008;Oliver et al., 2016;Hautier et al., 2018). Tamanduas use terrestrial and arboreal habitats, feeding almost exclusively on termites and ants (Rodrigues et al., 2008;Brown, 2011;Hayssen, 2011;Navarrete and Ortega, 2011;Ferreira-Cardoso et al., 2020). Accordingly, the genus exhibits anatomical characteristics related to their arboreal locomotion, such as a prehensile tail (Hayssen, 2011;Navarrete and Ortega, 2011), whereas the forelimb displays numerous adaptations for hook and pull digging (Taylor, 1978(Taylor, , 1985Kley and Kearney, 2007). ...
... Tamanduas use terrestrial and arboreal habitats, feeding almost exclusively on termites and ants (Rodrigues et al., 2008;Brown, 2011;Hayssen, 2011;Navarrete and Ortega, 2011;Ferreira-Cardoso et al., 2020). Accordingly, the genus exhibits anatomical characteristics related to their arboreal locomotion, such as a prehensile tail (Hayssen, 2011;Navarrete and Ortega, 2011), whereas the forelimb displays numerous adaptations for hook and pull digging (Taylor, 1978(Taylor, , 1985Kley and Kearney, 2007). While the noticeable abducted elbow of tamanduas (Taylor, 1978) and the placement of the lateral side of the hand on the ground during locomotion have been described (Pocock, 1924;Taylor, 1978;Polania-Guzmán and Vélez-García, 2019), no detailed description on locomotion and forelimb kinematics that underlie these prominent features is available. ...
Therian mammals are known to move their forelimbs in a parasagittal plane, retracting the mobilised scapula during stance phase. Non-cursorial therian mammals often abduct the elbow out of the shoulder-hip parasagittal plane. This is especially prominent in Tamandua (Xenarthra), which suggests they employ aspects of sprawling (e.g., lizard-like-) locomotion. Here, we test if tamanduas use sprawling forelimb kinematics, i.e., a largely immobile scapula with pronounced lateral spine bending and long-axis rotation of the humerus. We analyse high speed videos and use X-ray motion analysis of tamanduas walking and balancing on branches of varying inclinations and provide a quantitative characterization of gaits and forelimb kinematics. Tamanduas displayed lateral sequence lateral-couplets gaits on flat ground and horizontal branches, but increased diagonality on steeper in- and declines, resulting in lateral sequence diagonal-couplets gaits. This result provides further evidence for high diagonality in arboreal species, likely maximising stability in arboreal environments. Further, the results reveal a mosaic of sprawling and parasagittal kinematic characteristics. The abducted elbow results from a constantly internally rotated scapula about its long axis and a retracted humerus. Scapula retraction contributes considerably to stride length. However, lateral rotation in the pectoral region of the spine (range: 21°) is higher than reported for other therian mammals. Instead, it is similar to skinks and alligators, indicating an aspect generally associated with sprawling locomotion is characteristic for forelimb kinematics of tamanduas. Our study contributes to a growing body of evidence of highly variable non-cursorial therian mammal locomotor kinematics.
... Finally, the northern tamandua Tamandua mexicana presented a higher frequency of camera-trapping events in the undisturbed zone than in the disturbed zone, concurring with Navarrete & Ortega (2011), who indicated that this species inhabits deciduous tropical forest, mangroves, and second-growth forest. It is probable that these habitats provide an insect-based diet (such as ants and termites) and arboreal resources including limbs or lianas which tamanduas utilize for mobility; human structures may hinder its colonization or dispersal processes (Nuñez-Pérez et al. 2011). ...
Isla Santay is an important Ecuadorian conservation area for native species, but with little information on mammals. Between August 2018 and January 2019, the rich-ness and abundance of medium and large mammals was studied in two areas with different land use: undisturbed, and disturbed. We used a combination of camera trapping, direct observation, and indirect evidence (i.e. tracks, scat) for quantifying species richness. We recorded a total of six species, all observed in both zones, and three of them are currently included on the Red List of Mammals in Ecuador. In the undisturbed zone, Leopardus pardalis was the most frequently observed species and showed the highest activity; in the disturbed zone, L. pardalis and Procyon cancrivorus were the most active. Additionally, we reported the presence of Lon-tra longicaudis and Philander melanurus for the first time in this reserve. Several species that we expected to observe, such as Didelphis marsupialis,Nasua nasua, Eira barbara, Galictis vittata, and Herpailurus yaguarondi, were not recorded. Isla Santay presented low species richness, probably due to environmental pollutionand geographic isolation. Nonetheless, Isla Santay is a critical area for the preser-vation of mammalian species from western Ecuador, especially for species at risk. Future research should prioritize both the preservation of ecological processes and the understanding of the negative effects of human impacts on local biodiversity
... The anteater, Tamandua mexicana (Pilosa: Vermilingua), is distributed from the north of Mexico to the northwest regions of Peru and Venezuela (Rojano et al., 2014). This species belongs to the Myrmecophagidae family (Navarrete & Ortega 2011;Rojano et al., 2014), which is characterized by a tubular and outstretched head, small eyes and ears; it also has a toothless oral cavity, as well as a long and slender tongue with a sticky surface (Rojano et al., 2014), this species can be easily identified by its black vest of fur (Burton & Ceballos, 2006). ...
... The lack of movement could be due to the need for strength in order to increase the rotational force that allows this species to tear materials such as wood so as to achieve feed like termites, this being stated as the main evolutionary reason for these modifications at the level of thoracic limb. Since its diet consists of insects such as the latter, the T. mexicana, when hunting, approaches the nest with its limb fully extended, preventing ants and termites from attacking most of its body (Navarrete & Ortega, 2011). These particularities are also shared with de M. tridactyla species (Sesoko et al., 2015). ...
... For self-defense, they use their claws instead of their jaw and teeth, since neither of those are strong enough to be considered as defense tools (Navarrete & Ortega, 2011;Rojano et al., 2014). In their defense stance, they first flex their forearm by bringing the radius closer to the humerus, which subsequently retracts caudally and then upwards, this preparatory step allows them to throw a swipe against the predator in a gushing range of motion (Mora, 2000;Navarrete & Ortega, 2011). ...
Tamandua mexicana species has an important role in the natural ecosystem as a pest controller, feeding on insects such as termites. One of the main anatomical adaptations that this species has undergone has been to its thoracic extremities. Having detailed knowledge regarding the osteology of the thoracic limbs of T. mexicana provides a strong base for its application in clinical-surgical practice. In addition to collaborating with the greater understanding of animal physiology and behavior. Because there was a lack of description about the appendicular skeleton anatomy of this species, the objective of this investigation was to describe the osteology and the radiographic anatomy of the appendicular skeleton of the T. mexicana. The bones used belonging to the appendicular skeleton of two specimens of T. mexicana were properly cleaned using standard boiling and maceration techniques. The morphometry of the bones was performed using a measuring tape, pachymeter, and radiographies. With this study, it was possible to identify and describe the anatomical peculiarities such as the presence of the double scapular spine that shapes the caudolateral fossa, and at the end of the humerus, the supratrochlear foramen, in addition to a markedly prominent medial epicondyle. In addition, a difference was observed between metacarpal bones and the phalanges of the third digit compared to the other ones, as it is significantly thicker. These findings reinforced the evidence that a certain degree of anatomical specialization is a result of an adaptation of this species to its environment and diet. The knowledge provided by research like this contributes to the improvement of surgical techniques and diagnostic approach in the species.
... Células de la médula ausentes La cola es larga (Sin pelaje en la punta de la cola), gruesa, negra y prensil (Navarrete & Ortega, 2011). El pelaje es denso, corto y uniforme, tiene una mancha negra en forma de chaleco, que rodea la parte dorsal, ventral y los hombros, el resto del cuerpo es de color dorado (Eisenberg, 1989;Linares, 1998;Lubin, 1983;Wetzel, 1985). ...
Las técnicas de estudios en mamíferos han ido cambiando y adaptándose al igual que otras ciencias de la vida a nuevos y mejorados procedimientos en campo y de análisis. Por lo tanto, el presente texto está dirigido a estudiantes, docentes e investigadores que realizan trabajos del área de la mastozoología,
teniendo como objetivo principal el explicar de manera muy pragmática cómo se realizan los estudios en campo y laboratorio de mamíferos en general; con un mayor enfoque en especies de la costa ecuatoriana. Esta obra está divida en cuatro capítulos, cuyos autores pertenecen a diferentes especialidades en
esta rama de la biología.
En el capítulo número uno de la obra se presenta los diferentes métodos de estudio empleados para mamíferos en campo, en particular las técnicas de trampeo más comunes para la captura, toma de huellas y fotografía de mamíferos en general. Además, en este capítulo se toma en consideración la fase de análisis de datos obtenidos en campo con el programa estadístico “R”. En el siguiente capítulo, se encontrará una guía ilustrada de huellas y pelos de 64 especies de mamíferos de la zona occidental ecuatoriana. En esta se explica la morfología y morfometría tanto de los pelos como de las huellas. La importancia de esta guía radica en que este tipo de análisis han ido tomando mayor relevancia en los estudios de mastofauna, por lo que se encuentra esta explicada de la manera más sencilla para optimizar su manejo.
La tercera sección del libro está enfocada a temas relacionados a los bosques más representativos de la costa ecuatoriana y la mastofauna que esta alberga, al mismo tiempo se ha tomado parte de esta sección para dar a conocer las políticas y el estado de conservación de los bosques del pacífico ecuatorial.
En el último apartado se presentan dos casos de estudios puntuales en bosques de la costa de Ecuador, utilizando los diversos tipos de trampeo y análisis empleados para investigaciones con mamíferos, estas zonas son: Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco y Reserva Ecológica Arenillas. En estos
trabajos se analizan la efectividad de los métodos de trampeo y la diversidad mastozoo faunística en ambas zonas.
