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Automotive electrification has become the centre of current transportation technology especially in the age of surging petroleum fuel prices and rising social awareness of vehicle emissions. A range of electrified powertrains from micro hybrid to full electric have been implemented in a wide variety of vehicle platforms from subcompacts to heavy-du...
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... can also charge the battery by applying a braking torque on the electrically powered axle. Table 1 and Figure 2 summarise the current commercial hybrid electric vehicles utilising a parallel architecture. The vehicles are grouped by their size class and the value graphed is the EPA provided combined MPG number (US Department of Energy, http://www.fueleconomy.gov/). ...
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... The fundamental difference between complex hybrid and series-parallel hybrid is in the seriesparallel hybrid, unidirectional power flow from the generator whereas in the complex hybrid, bidirectional power flow from the electric motor. 19 Strengths: ...
Continuous efforts to preserve the environment and to reduce gaseous emissions due to the massive growth of urban economic development and heightened concerns over crude oil depletion have accelerated researchers to find long‐term solutions, particularly in the transportation sector with the focus on powertrain electrification. This article delivers a comprehensive overview of electric vehicle architectures, energy storage systems, and motor traction power. Subsequently, it emphasizes different charge equalization methodologies of the energy storage system. This work's contribution can be identified in two points: first, providing an overview of different energy management methods to researchers and scholars. Second, to highlight the state‐of‐the‐art leanings in major components and to highlight promising approaches to hybrid electric vehicle future development.
... In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as the near future solution in transportation sustainability [1,2]. Motor control technology has witnessed significant advancements over the years, enabling higher precision, efficiency, and control over electric motors [3][4][5]. ...
... Having obtained every torque point compatible with the limitations, the MTPS curve has been computed and compared to the one from the FEMM analysis. In Figure 4, the torque comparison between the MTPS calculated with the analytical formula in Equation (1) and the one calculated with the numerical approach with FEMM software (JMAG 21.0) is shown. With a view toward implementing FOC 4D, the MTPS curve has been calc varying the temperature and the DC-link voltage. ...
Nowadays, electric vehicles have gained significant attention as a promising solution to the environmental concerns associated with traditional combustion engine vehicles. With the increasing demand for high-performance hypercars, the need for advanced torque control strategies has become paramount. Field-Oriented Control using Current Vector Control represents a consolidated solution to implement torque control. However, this kind of control must take into account the DC link voltage variation and the variation of motor parameters depending on the magnets’ temperature while providing the maximum torque production for specific inverter current and voltage limitations. Multidimensional lookup tables are needed to provide a robust torque control from zero speed up to maximum speed under deep flux-weakening operation. Therefore, this article aims to explore the application of FOC 4D control in electrical hypercars and its impact on enhancing their overall performance and control stability. The article will delve into the principles underlying FOC 4D control and its advantages, challenges, and potential solutions to optimize the operation of electric hypercars. An electric powertrain model has been developed in the Simulink environment with the Simscape tool using a S-function block for the implementation of digital control in C-code. High-power electric motor electromagnetic parameters, derived from a Finite Element Method magnetic model, have been used in the simulation. The 4D LUTs have been computed from the motor flux maps and implemented in C-code in the S-function. The choice of FOC 4D control has been validated in the main load points of a hypercar application and compared to the conventional FOC. The final part of the research underlines the benefits of the FOC 4D on reliability, critical in motorsport applications.
... Standardization ensures that EVs adhere to specified safety guidelines and technical specifications, instilling confidence among consumers, manufacturers, and regulatory authorities. Compliance with these standards ensures that EVs are reliable, efficient, and safe to use, thereby encouraging greater adoption of electric vehicles across the country [4,11,12,13,14]. ...
The electric vehicle market in India has tremendous growth potential in the upcoming years and decades, attracting numerous automotive manufacturers, including Tier-1 suppliers, seeking to participate in this growth phase. Electric powertrains used in e-cars on Indian roads comply with BIS and AIS standards. However, these standards alone do not provide sufficient clarity on the complete list of tests required for developing an e-Axle through all stages of development. Developing the e-Axle in-house for the Indian market poses a significant challenge for OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers, as it will play a crucial role in overall profitability at high volumes in the long term. Adhering solely to the BIS and AIS standards may prove insufficient in fulfilling the developmental prerequisites of an electric axle (e-Axle) system. A comprehensive list of Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Traceable requirements for any e-Axle must be fulfilled through Performance, Functional, Durability, and Robustness categories of tests. This paper examines various International and Indian standards related to e-Axle development and testing. Additionally, it proposes a solution in the form of essential tests for each test category (a generic e-Axle DVP). This approach incorporates the applicable tests listed in BIS and AIS standards, along with some other relevant tests taken from international standards. In the end, it serves as a guide for developing an e-axle that not only meets Indian test standards but also aligns with the well-established testing methodology of e-axles based on international test standards.
Keywords: Electric vehicle, E-Axle, Design Verification Plan (DVP), Indian market, international standards, Indian Standards, EDU, E-Powertrain DVP, Electric mobility.
... These powertrains can achieve better engine efficiency than conventional ICE powertrains through energy recuperation, electric motor boost, and efficient engine operation. HEVs, which are the subject of the current work, employ high voltage batteries for energy storage that can be recharged by the ICE and during regenerative braking [5]. HEV configurations fall into different categories, including parallel, series, or power split. ...
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his study assessed the on-road gaseous and particulate emissions from a gasoline direct injection (GDI) hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) using portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS). Testing was conducted, while the vehicle was exercised over three routes with different topological and environmental characteristics, representing urban, highway, and mountain (high-altitude) driving conditions. The gaseous emissions (NOx, CO, THC, and CO2) were found to be the highest during mountain driving compared to urban and highway driving. PM mass and soot mass emissions were comparable between the Downtown LA (urban driving conditions) and Mt Baldy (rural driving conditions with altitude changes) routes but higher compared to Highway route. NOx emissions and soot mass emissions over all test routes exhibited reasonably good correlations with vehicle acceleration but poor correlations with road grade.
... As a result of the electrification trend in recent years, the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has increased significantly, including electric bikes (E-bikes) [1], [2]. Similar to most electric propulsion systems for land transportation (EPLT), E-bike motors need to be lightweight but can still produce sufficient output power. ...
The demand for electric bikes has been increasing in recent years, and so has their drive, which requires a high power-to-weight ratio or a high power density. An axial-flux permanent magnet motor with a Halbach-array is an excellent choice for electric bike drives thanks to its known characteristics of high power density, reliability, and efficiency. However, because an axial-flux machine topology is not common, the manufacturing process can be challenging, especially in the stator core. A good solution to this problem is to remove the stator tooth tips, as this simplifies the stator core shape and makes manufacturing easier. The proposed electric bike has limited housing dimension constraints; thus magnet sensors were implemented to support the Hall sensors in detecting the rotor position. The designed models were analyzed using the 3D finite element method (FEM) to determine their electromagnetic and thermal characteristics. A prototype was manufactured based on the final design and tested under rated conditions to validate the analysis results.
... This led to the development of automated systems for making numerous elements in the area of microelectronics, such as digital processors, logic and analog integrated circuits, power integrated circuits, sensors, various actuation systems etc. [3]. At the same time, autonomous technology and connectivity, hybridization and electrification of motorization, as well as digitization along the production chain will lead to fundamental transformations in the way the entire automotive ecosystem operates [4,5,6]. Their facilitation could be done both by optimizing processes and workflows or data management and control, but also by adopting hardware and software technologies for the automation and robotization of manufacturing processes [7,8,9]. ...
The design of technical solutions and the serial execution of electrical subassemblies to be integrated into the production of electronic components in the automotive industry requires adaptation to new working conditions and technologies, doubled by the quality of services and products, which must be competitive on a global scale. This can also be achieved by choosing the optimal variants of machines or equipment that are the most profitable from a qualitative and economic point of view for a fully automated technological process, as well as by a maintenance of these systems, which must be performed in accordance with the instructions manufacturer and at regular intervals. In this context, the appearance of new technical resources, of new trends and especially automation, gave to pneumatic technology an ever-rising development, most of the time, pneumatic drives constituting a basic component in intensive production systems. This paper aims to present a description of a pneumatic equipment for microdeformation of wires in the automotive industry, the technological process for obtaining microdeformed components (wires), as well as a calculation of the characteristic parameters of the pneumatic equipment.
... Yang et al. [35] reviewed the electrified powertrains developed in the North American automotive industry. The vehicle categories depended on various powertrain configurations and electrification levels. ...
The amount of hybrid vehicles and their contribution have increased in the global market.
They are a promising aspect for a decrease in emissions. Different tests are used to determine the factors of such emissions. The goal of the present study was to compare the emissions of two hybrid vehicles of the same manufacturer: the plug-in version and the HEV version (gasoline + electric engine). These vehicles were chosen because they comprise the largest market share of hybrid cars in Poland. The exhaust emission tests were conducted in the WLTC tests on a chassis dynamometer and under real traffic conditions. Simultaneous testing on a dyno and under real driving is the most adequate test to assess the environmental aspects of vehicles—especially hybrids. The combustion
engines of the tested vehicles were supplied with gasoline containing 5% biocomponents. The emissions, including CO2, CO, NOx, THC and PNs, were measured in accordance with the European Union procedure. According to the latter, the resistance to motion of the chassis dyno was adjusted to the road load, allowing the hybrid vehicles to move in electric mode and allowing the dynamometer to operate in energy recovery mode. The obtained emissions of CO2, CO, NOx and THC in the case of the plug-in hybrid vehicle were lower by 3%, 2%, 25%, and 13%, respectively, compared to the case of HEV. Fuel consumption in the case of the plug-in hybrid vehicle was lower by 3%, and PN was
lower by 10% compared to the case of HEV (WLTC). In real driving conditions, the differences were more pronounced in favour of the plug-in vehicle: CO2 emissions in the RDE test were 30% lower, NOx emissions were 50% lower, and PN was 10% lower. An increase in emissions was only observed for CO2 emissions—the plug-in vehicle’s on-road emissions were 6% higher compared to the HEV. The obtained emissions for FC and PN varied with actual velocity values due to competitive driving between a combustion engine and an electric motor, as well as existing acceleration and deceleration events during the test and other factors.
... There are many different types of hybrid vehicle architecture each with their own levels of electrical propulsion integration (Yang et al., 2016;Zia, 2017). An exemplary mild hybrid, within the P1 categorisation, could contain a belt starter generator (BSG) coupled to the (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE) which simply replaces the alternator with an e-machine, which can provide a torque assist or recuperate energy from engine braking. ...
... There are many different types of hybrid vehicle architecture each with their own levels of electrical propulsion integration (Yang et al., 2016;Zia, 2017). An exemplary mild hybrid, within the P1 categorisation, could contain a belt starter generator (BSG) coupled to the (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE) which simply replaces the alternator with an e-machine, which can provide a torque assist or recuperate energy from engine braking. ...
... For instance, Fernandez et al. [10] proposed an adaptive state machine based EMS for a fuel cell HEV to enhance fuel economy and fuel cell lifetime. Among them, the power follower control was more successfully implemented in commercial passenger HEVs/PHEVs such as Chevrolet Malibu [13] Lower boundary max Maximum [14], Honda Accord [15], and many others. Fuzzy logic-based approaches, including conventional, adaptive, and predictive fuzzy strategies, are an extension of the conventional rulebased controller, in which the knowledge of an expert is developed and coded in the rule-based style to make appropriate decision. ...
A comprehensive forward-looking powertrain model with an efficiency-based control strategy was developed to achieve real-time optimization of plug-in hybrid electric buses while considering the real vehicle drivability and the practical operation of all powertrain components under real driving conditions. The control strategy is based on a supervisory control algorithm that alternately employs charge-dominant control and discharge-dominant control to manage multiple powertrain sources, and enable an optimal overall efficiency-based powertrain operation state by maximizing the inherent optimal powertrain efficiency through best all transmission gear choice and the blend of motor and/or engine power. In the model, a component energy efficiency database was developed to rapidly enable an smart and optimal operating state determined from a set of efficiency maps characterizing the component and powertrain control states as a function of the instantaneous vehicle operational condition. The results revealed that the energy savings achieved with the innovative powertrain control improved by 10%–30% compared with the baseline hybrid powertrain control strategy. The benefits of eco-driving with respect to energy consumption were also evaluated using the powertrain model. The powertrain control model was implemented into a real hybrid bus. Measured energy savings with the optimized control strategy were similar to the simulated results.
