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Four regions within the contiguous United States discussed in this review article (modified from Karl and Koss, 1984).
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Core Ideas
Agronomic management and environment affect malting barley yield and quality.
Most agronomic guidelines are from the Northwest and Northern Rockies and Plains.
Breweries in the Upper Midwest, Ohio Valley, and Northeast want local grain.
Research on cropping sequence, seeding date and rate, and N management is needed.
Malting barley (Hor...
Similar publications
There is an increasing market for locally grown malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in the Northeast US. Malting barley must meet certain quality standards for acceptability in the brewing market. Up-to-date recommendations are needed regionally for adaptation to ongoing climate change. A two-year field experiment was conducted to assess the intera...
Citations
... Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is a historically important crop across the United States, including the Upper Midwest region. Beginning around 1990, barley acreage has decreased precipitously in the region (USDA-NASS 2022), primarily due to the Fusarium head blight epidemic of the 1990s (Nganje et al. 2004) and the northward expansion of corn (Shrestha and Lindsey 2019). A combination of management practices, fungicides, and genetic resistance has helped to reduce Fusarium head blight incidence (Wegulo et al. 2015), but barley acreage has not returned to the Upper Midwest, reducing crop diversity in the region. ...
... A combination of management practices, fungicides, and genetic resistance has helped to reduce Fusarium head blight incidence (Wegulo et al. 2015), but barley acreage has not returned to the Upper Midwest, reducing crop diversity in the region. Barley acreage in the Upper Midwest has traditionally been dominated by springplanted cultivars, as opposed to the winter-planted cultivars which are prevalent in more southern locations (Shrestha and Lindsey 2019). This is primarily due to a dearth of malting barley cultivars which reliably survive the winter in the Upper Midwest. ...
A lack of reliable winter hardiness has impeded the adoption of winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in much of the northern United States. Direct selection for winter survival is time consuming and often unreliable. In addition, because survival is a binary trait, selection towards small quantitative gains can be difficult. One solution to these challenges is to identify indirect selection traits: anatomical or physiological characteristics which can be measured in the absence of winter stress, but which contribute to improved winter survival. Here, we survey a range of winter and spring barley, as well as winter wheat, winter rye, and perennial species of the genus Hordeum, all of which are more winter hardy than barley, to identify traits associated with winter survival. We identified several traits as promising candidates for selection. These included crown depth and leaf metaxylem diameter, which previous studies have identified as indirect selection traits. New candidates identified by our study include crown diameter and leaf midvein and blade thickness, as well as a suite of traits which suggest a pattern of reduced and efficient investment in above-ground structures. The effect of these traits on winter survival need to be validated and quantified by further experiments, but they represent a promising early step in a potentially valuable breeding strategy.
... Malting barley (Hordeum vulgare) is the primary raw material for beer production and has to achieve high yields with optimal grain quality. The shape, size, weight, test weight, germination of the grain, and the content of nitrogenous substances in the grain are very important [6,7]. The malting industry demands a high quality of malting barley, which also determines its purchase price and use [6,7]. ...
... The shape, size, weight, test weight, germination of the grain, and the content of nitrogenous substances in the grain are very important [6,7]. The malting industry demands a high quality of malting barley, which also determines its purchase price and use [6,7]. Quality standards are often not met, and malting barley is bought at a low price or used for animals [6,7]. ...
... The malting industry demands a high quality of malting barley, which also determines its purchase price and use [6,7]. Quality standards are often not met, and malting barley is bought at a low price or used for animals [6,7]. Drought and high temperatures most often cause reduced yield and grain quality [8]. ...
In this study, the effect of nitrogen doses (52, 80, 110, 140 kg/ha N) and the application of biostimulant preparations containing Ascophyllum nodosum L. algae extract were assessed. During the years 2018–2019, the influence of the preparations on the electrical capacity of the roots (C R) and yield components of spring barley was determined. Root electrical capacitance was determined in growth stages 45–50, 55–65, and 70–75 according to the BBCH-scale. The best phases of vegetation growth for the application of biostimulators with Ascophyllum nodosum extract were the barley tillering and elongation phases. This application increased C R while reducing the amount of N required to achieve similar or higher production of barley yield components compared to high N treatments. The root electrical capacitance, the number of productive tillers, and the number of grains per plant were significantly influenced (p > 0.05) by the weather of the year. The number of productive tillers was closely correlated with C R (r = 0.912**) as well as the number of grains per plant (r = 0.859**) and their weight (r = 0.850**). These relationships were the highest at the beginning of the grain formation (BBCH 70–75). Foliar biostimulation was not very effective in the dry year of 2018. The problem may be the foliar application itself. The effect of foliar application is strongly dependent on weather conditions and may be ineffective in many cases. We recommend the foliar application of effective biostimulants in tillering and elongation phases. They can reduce production costs and environmental pollution by reducing the amount of fertilizer needed while maintaining yields.
... Due to its shorter growing stage and better adaptability, barley can be grown more successfully even under less favorable conditions and with less P-fertilization. The yield and the quality of the crop in this case are significantly determined by the Nfertilization (Papastylianou, 2004;Shrestha & Lindsey, 2019). ...
The sowing area and yield of crops are primarily determined by climatic suitability and modified by terrain conditions. This study presents the actual sowing area of 10 major crops in Europe and reveals the spatial pattern of available soil phosphorus (P) concentrations between and within the sowing areas of the crops, based on the Land Use/Land Cover Area Frame Survey (LUCAS) database. A great variance in cropping pattern over Europe was observed, especially for crops with a broad climatic tolerance. Results show significant differences between soil phosphorus concentrations under different agricultural crops, indicating the differences in management intensities of major crops. A strong relationship between high yields and P‐fertilizer use was found, as indicated by soil P concentration. In the context of environmental zones, P‐concentration values were higher in northern zones, medium in the zones in central Europe, and lower in the Mediterranean zones. The more suitable the climate is for growing crops, the more it pays to apply P fertilizers. Consequently, soil P‐concentration is a good indicator of crop cultivation intensity, land productivity, P‐fertilizer use, and the total P demand of plants. Among the most commonly cultivated crops, maize seems to be the most dependent crop for the level of P‐concentration of soil or the P inputs. For more sustainable P use in Europe, further research is needed to calculate how the P‐requirements of yields compare to the P‐fertilizer use in the case of different crop types.
... Development of malting barley lines specifically for use in craft malting and brewing is a novel area of research with increased industry interest. [25] Much of the work for the craft sector has focused on agronomics and breeding [26][27][28] and not on flavor outcomes, per se. Existing work on the contribution of barley genotype to beer flavor has been primarily limited to the evaluation of research type malts (i.e., laboratory-malted on small scale) and beers (i.e., nano-brewed) with malting protocols designed to optimize modification in order to meet malt specifications as outlined by AMBA. ...
Understanding the role barley variety plays in the overall flavor profile of beer is an area of research of interest to barley breeders, maltsters, and brewers. Here we build on previous research on the effect of barley variety on beer flavor by focusing on commercial-type malts and beers. A selection of three winter-habit, elite malting lines – two released varieties and one experimental – were grown in three locations across Oregon and California and harvested in summer 2020. Each was malted to the specifications of Pilsner-style malt. Beers were produced to mimic offerings of the industry partner and utilized a small portion of specialty malt and higher hopping rates than previous work. All beers underwent descriptive sensory analysis and Projective Mapping (Napping®) to characterize and determine the magnitude of separation between samples. Malting and brewing performance differed among the nine entries, but sensory outcomes showed only minor separation and few significant differences in the descriptive analysis. The results here showed that there is correlation between malt modification and sensory outcomes and ultimately confirmed that barley variety and growing location contributes to beer flavor. However, the overall contributions are nuanced, particularly in commercial-ty3pe malts and beers.
... In addition to a small amount of them being used as seed to establish the next season's crop, harvested barley seeds are used for different purposes. The quality of barley significantly influences its end utilization since the germination rate of barley seed must be >95% for the malting process [1]. There are many reasons causing failure of germination. ...
Ozone is widely used to control pests in grain and impacts seed germination, a crucial stage in crop establishment which involves metabolic alterations. In this study, dormancy was overcome through after-ripening (AR) in dry barley seed storage of more than 4 weeks; alternatively, a 15-min ozone treatment could break the dormancy of barley immediately after harvest, with accelerated germination efficiency remaining around 96% until 4 weeks. Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and liquid absorption coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were utilized for metabolite profiling of 2-, 4- and 7-day germinating seeds. Metabolic changes during barley germination are reflected by time-dependent characteristics. Alcohols, fatty acids, and ketones were major contributors to time-driven changes during germination. In addition, greater fatty acids were released at the early germination stage when subjected to ozone treatment.
... This is problematic, as quality of barley is crucial in determining its end utilisation. For example, the germination rate of barley seed must exceed 95% for malting [58]. Therefore, a high seed germination ability plays a pivotal role in improving crop production and shortening the manufacturing costs of the malting process. ...
Ozone (O3) is a potential fumigant to control pests in stored grain since it can safely and rapidly auto-decompose without leaving residues. In this study, the efficacy of O3 on all life stages of Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) in barley and the physiological effects on barley and its quality were investigated. Complete control of all life stages of pests was obtained at 700 ppm for 1440 min of ozone exposure without negatively impacting the contents of soluble protein, moisture content, seed colour, hardness, and the weight of thousand barley seeds. The eggs and pupae of these two insects were the more tolerant stages than their larvae and adults. Prolonged exposure times (40 to 1440 min) and mortality assessment intervals (1, 2, and 7 days) increased O3 efficacy due to the reaction characteristics and delayed toxicity. Aging barley seeds appeared to be more sensitive to prolonged ozone duration than new seeds. A total of 20 and 40 min could promote germination rate, and longer O3 exposure (1440 min) was unfavourable for germination and seedling growth. Thus, it is imperative to select an optimal O3 exposure time to transfer ozone into quality contributors of final products and achieve the desired functional outcomes.
... Winter malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an emerging crop in the Northeastern United States [1,2]. Although it has the potential to be a profitable crop in the region, achieving the high-quality grains needed for malting purposes is challenging because of the Northeast's humid environment and seasonal temperature extremes [3]. ...
... To be acceptable for malting, the barley grains should be large, low in protein, free of or very low in carcinogenic deoxynivalenol (DON) toxin [8], and sprout well during the malting process [9]. Farmers can successfully grow malting barley by combining three methods: (1) choosing a site-appropriate variety that will overwinter, resist locally common diseases, and remain upright after heading [10,11]; (2) correctly timing their harvest to avoid partial sprouting in the field and using forced air dryers if weather does not permit dry-down in the field [2,12]; and (3) using growing practices that have been shown to promote good malting quality [1,13]. ...
... Most malting barley production in North America occurs in the dry Great Plains and West Coast regions with relatively little in the humid Northeast and Midwest [1]. As a result, most malting barley research has focused on different cropping systems than those discussed in this experiment. ...
There is growing interest in malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) production in the Northeastern United States. This crop must meet high quality standards for malting but can command a high price if these quality thresholds are met. A two-year field experiment was conducted from 2015 to 2017 to evaluate the impact of two leguminous cover crops, sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), on subsequent winter malting barley production. Four cover crop treatments—sunn hemp (SH), crimson clover (CC), sunn hemp and crimson clover mixture (SH + CC), and no cover crop (NC)—were grown before planting barley at three seeding rates (300, 350, and 400 seeds m−2). SH and SH + CC produced significantly more biomass and residual nitrogen than the CC and NC treatments. Higher barley seeding rates led to higher seedling density and winter survival. However, the subsequent spring and summer barley growth metrics, yield, and malting quality were not different in any of the treatments. There is much left to investigate in determining the best malting barley production practices in the Northeastern United States, but these results show that winter malting barley can be successfully integrated into crop rotations with leguminous plants without negative impacts on barley growth, yield, and grain quality.
... An insufficient amount of mineral N results in lower yields. On the other hand, an excessive amount of the N can negatively affect the grain yield (lodging) and in the case of barley grown for the brewing industry (malting purposes) even quality, because barley continues to utilize N even when yield requirements are met [4,15,16], increasing its protein content. The excessive amounts of applied N are also connected with financial losses of the farmers and negative impacts on soil, water and groundwater due to the N leaching and emissions [17][18][19]. ...
Barley is one of the most important cereals growing in the Czech Republic. In this paper, we have evaluated how different fertilizer treatments (Control, N1 – 30 kg ha−1 N, N2 – 60 kg ha−1 N, NPK1 – 30, 60, 80 kg ha−1, respectively, NPK2 – 60, 60, 80, and NPK3 – 90, 60, 80) affected spring barley grain yield under different soil–climate conditions (Caslav–degraded Chernozem, Ivanovice–Chernozem, Lukavec–Cambisol) between the years 2013 and 2016. The agronomic efficiency (AE) and the effect of the fertilizer treatments (Control, N2, NPK2) on soil properties (pH, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cox, Nt) were also evaluated. The spring barley grain yield was significantly affected by the fertilizer treatment and soil–climate conditions. Two different models (quadratic and linear-plateau) provided the maximum and reasonable doses of N, according to the soil–climate conditions. Application of mineral P and K slightly increased the AE. The regular application of mineral P and K fertilizers led to an increase in the P and K concentration in the soil, which maintains soil fertility and prevents soil depletion.
... The requirements for grain protein content and size range from 9.5 to 12.5% and >2.38 mm in North America (Shrestha and Lindsey, 2019), while the grain protein content is from 10 to 12%, and the requirement for the grain size is >2.5 mm (>70%) and <2.2 mm (<5%) in Australia (Fox et al., 2003). In France and Germany, the malting barley grain protein content must be in the range of 9.5 to 11.5% of the dry weight, and the retention fraction (proportion of grains larger than 2.5 mm) must be >90% (Incograin, 2014;Bundessortenamt, 2016;Beillouin et al., 2018). ...
To meet the strict requirements for the malting quality of both grain size and protein content for malting barley, a better understanding of the partitioning and remobilization of dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N) from individual vegetative organs during grain filling may contribute to adjusting a balance in both quality parameters to satisfy the malting criteria of the brewing industry. A 2-year experiment that included 23 spring malting barley varieties was carried out to determine the DM and N partitioning in different organs at anthesis and maturity and to estimate their remobilization to grains. In contrast to the genetic variation of the 23 barley varieties, year effect was the most important single factor influencing the DM and N accumulation at pre-anthesis, and the DM and N translocation from their reserves at pre-anthesis. Post-anthesis assimilates accounted for 71–94% of the total grain yield among the barley varieties in 2014 and 53–81% in 2015. In contrast, the N reserved in vegetative tissues at anthesis contributed to barley grain N from 67% in the variety Union to 91% in the variety Marthe in 2014, and 71% in the variety Grace to 97% in the variety Shakira in 2015. The results concluded that photosynthetically derived assimilates at post-anthesis played an important role in determining grain size, whereas N reserves at pre-anthesis and N remobilization at post-anthesis probably determined the grain protein content of the malting barley. To achieve a high quality of malting barley grains in both grain size and protein content simultaneously, balancing photosynthetic assimilates at post-anthesis and N reserves at pre-anthesis and N remobilization should be considered as strategies for the combination of the selection of spring malting barley varieties together with agronomic N management.
... Fall planting of barley provides continuous soil cover, thereby providing potential ecosystem services that are typically associated with cover crops (Clark, 2012). Furthermore, this crop has a promising economic potential given the mature value chain for barley production in the region (Shrestha & Lindsey, 2019). ...
Winter survival is a major yield-limiting
factor in winter barley grown in the Upper
Midwest, where winter temperatures regularly reach −20°C or lower. Here, we tested
the hypothesis that improved freezing survival is associated with smaller xylem vessel
diameters as a mechanism that minimizes physical damage arising from intracellular
ice formation, using leaf vasculature as a proxy trait. A second goal was to test
whether such anatomical differences could be captured non-destructively
via gas
exchange measurements. We first identified a group of 11 winter barley genotypes
that exhibited differential field winter survival. We then conducted xylem diameter
measurements on the first three leaves on all genotypes in two independent experiments
based on 1,188 images, in addition to leaf gas exchange measurements.
Freezing-tolerant
genotypes consistently exhibited significantly smaller metaxylem
vessel diameters irrespective of leaf rank, and this difference was not influenced by
hardening, indicating that this trait is heritable. Additionally, genotypes with smaller
vasculature tended to exhibit lower stomatal conductance and transpiration rates.
Our data indicate that genotypes with leaf xylem diameters smaller than 30 μm are
prime donor parents and could be identified using gas exchange measurements,
pointing to new phenotyping approaches to accelerate breeding for freezing survival.
