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Introduction Orchard Systems for Cider Apples National and Regional Cider Cultures and Cultivars Literature Cited
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... These compounds in fermented beverages are mainly from raw materials or are generated during fermentation with microbial activities (Lingxi and Bashan, 2019;Morata et al., 2020). The fermentation method affects the content of bioactive compounds (Merwin et al., 2008). Besides, fermentation can change the structure of compounds through enzymatic action, hydrolysis, condensation, polymerization, etc. (Tatdao et al., 2014). ...
Green asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) root was used as raw materials for the new fermented beverage because of its nutrition. With the goal of improving the value of green asparagus and contributing to the diversification of asparagus products; the fermented beverage (light alcoholic beverage) was the target of the research. The fermentation was conducted with 2 factors including initial total soluble solids (18-24°Bx) and pH (4.0-5.5). The results showed that the suitable conditions for fermenting the beverage from green asparagus root were 20°Bx and pH 4.5. The ethanol content, the contents of bioactive compounds (phenolic, flavonoid, tannin and saponin) and vitamin C (per 100 g of dry matter) of the fermented beverage from green asparagus were 5.0% v/v, 2.242 g tannic acid equivalent (TAE), 0.206 g quercetin equivalent (QE), 0.273 g TAE, 1.454 g saponin equivalent (SE) and 3.214 g, respectively.
... To maximize cider quality and consumer appeal with non-traditional cider apple cultivars, such as 'Wodarz', continued work, including but not limited to fermentation conditions, fermentation strategies, and sensory attribute identification, needs to be conducted [66,67]. Within the realm of Saccharomyces spp., regional research has explored different yeast strains when fermenting 'Dolgo' crabapple with the goal of deacidification and color maximization [28]. ...
A regionally developed and adapted dessert apple, ‘Wodarz’, was explored for its potential in apple cider production because of its consistent productivity when other apple cultivars have struggled with North Dakota’s climate. Due to the importance of yeast strain on the perceived quality of fermentation products, five commercial yeast strains, three wine yeasts (EC1118, Maurivin B, and 71B), and two cider yeasts (WLP775 and WY4766) were evaluated for their impact on the physicochemical properties, color, and sensory characteristics of ‘Wodarz’ cider. By assessing dynamic changes, such as spectral properties and sugar content, a comparison among yeasts was conducted across multiple dimensions. The lightness, chroma, and hue all showed variations throughout fermentation, though not across the final ciders. However, differences in the final color of the ciders were identified via ΔE calculations. Each yeast contributed different aromas and tastes to the final ciders. Among yeast strains, EC1118 had the strongest aroma intensity. Despite having subdued aroma intensity, 71B had strong acidity tastes and WLP775 had strong fruity tastes. Thus, our research suggests that yeast strains are an applicable factor in determining the final sensory attributes of local ‘Wodarz’ cider. This is the first report of fermentation outcomes using ‘Wodarz’ apples for cider. ‘Wodarz’ can be aromatically described using terms such as apple, honey, herbal, rose, and floral and fruit notes. The overall taste of ‘Wodarz’ cider is characterized by apple, honey, and rose notes followed by black pepper and grass.
... Rooted in Atlantic European tradition, cider boasts a history dating back to at least 900 BCE (Buglass, 2011). The United Kingdom leads as the primary global producer, followed by France and Spain, with the United States emerging as the leading non-European producer (Merwin et al., 2008). Major cider consumption zones include Western Europe (55.7%), ...
... Applying a mixture in cider apple orchards may be more commercially viable compared to dessert apples, because disease control requirements in cider apple production are less strict. [76] . Also, a vast majority of ciders are blends of several apple varieties, thus cultivars with similar maturing dates may not need to be harvested separately [77] . ...
... Cultivars showing R gene breakdown can still be useful for the future. A mixture can still be implemented with susceptible cultivars, because they may contain narrow spectrum resistance genes, meaning they are susceptible to particular strains whilst showing resistance against others [76,78,81] . However, mixtures with fully susceptible cultivars (no known R genes present) may be significantly less effective for disease reduction. ...
... If scab super-races were spreading in the mixed orchard, we would have expected the differentiation among pathogen populations among cultivars in the mixture to decline over time. However, over a 7-year period the decreased population differentiation was observed only between isolates from 'COP' and 'B', and in contrast the population differentiation between isolates from 'WP' and 'COP'/'B' increased significantly over the 7 years [76] . This suggests that 'B' and 'COP' share some common resistance features against scab, but differ largely from 'WP'. ...
Apple scab, caused by the fungus Venturia inaequalis, is one of the most damaging diseases of cultivated apples (Malus x domestica) worldwide. It results in huge losses as it diminishes fruit quality and impacts tree growth. Current management revolves around the application of fungicides, however the number of sprays required per season is unsustainable and expensive. Further to this, populations of V. inaequalis have developed fungicide resistance. Breeding new cultivars with higher levels of resistance to scab is a priority, however, this process is long, so introducing mixed cultivar orchards may be a faster solution. We reviewed the general principles of using mixtures to manage plant diseases, and then considered specifically using mixed cultivars to manage apple scab in commercial production. Limited field studies have demonstrated the potential of using mixture to suppress apple scab development; but scab super-races that could emerge from mixture can pose a significant risk in commercial production. However, recent research on population genetics of apple scab in monoculture and mixed orchards suggests that the risk of super-race emergence is probably over-stated, because assortative mating among lesions on the same leaves is likely to occur, rather than commonly assumed random mating. Thus, we conclude that cultivar mixtures can contribute towards sustainable scab management, particularly in commercial cider apple production.
... In the United States, sales of hard (alcoholic) cider, and the number of commercial cideries, have grown 10-fold from 2008 to 2019 (Brager 2020;Miles et al. 2020). The number of orchards planted with high-tannin apple (Malus spp.) trees-most of which are European Malus ×domestica cultivars-is also increasing, although not enough to meet demand (Merwin et al. 2008;Miles et al. 2015;Pashow 2018;Weinstock 2016;Zakalik 2021). Many of these cultivars were bred and/or selected specifically for use in hard cider and have much greater phenolic (specifically, "tannin"), acid, and/or sugar concentration in their flesh and juice than fresh-market or multipurpose cultivars. ...
... There has been minimal recent experimental research on cider apple cultivars and almost none has specifically examined the relationship between crop load and juice quality measures, such as, phenolic, acid, sugar, or nitrogen concentration (Merwin et al. 2008;Miles et al. 2020). The need for crop load management strategies to mitigate "biennial" or "alternate" bearing tendencies of many cider cultivars makes understanding the effect of crop load on juice quality particularly important (Bradshaw et al. 2020;Green 1987;Wood 1979;Zakalik 2021). ...
Over 3 years (2016-18), tree productivity, biennial bearing, return bloom, and fruit quality were evaluated for seven high-tannin cider apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) cultivars. Five treatments were evaluated on each of the seven cultivars: hand-thinned of all fruit (a zero crop load treatment); hand-thinned to crop densities of three, six, or nine fruit/cm 2 trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA); or left unthinned. In this paper, we report on the fruit maturity and juice quality properties that were analyzed for the three non-zero crop load treatments and the unthinned control. The effects of crop load on fruit maturity, as measured by starch pattern index and preharvest drop, were cultivar dependent. Crop density (fruit/cm 2 TCSA) had a significant effect on all fruit maturity and juice quality variables, although effects were weakest in the "off" year (2017) for the whole planting when initial fruit set was low. As crop density increased, total poly phenols , titratable acidity, soluble solids, and primary amino nitrogen decreased in the juice of all seven cultivars. A partial budget analysis indicated that the reduced costs of nitrogen supplements due to increased primary amino nitrogen concentration alone would not justify cost of chemical or hand-thinning. By extrapolating the spring flowering density in the fourth year to potential fruit yields at harvest, we found that reducing crop load was projected to increase cumulative total polyphenol yields per tree over the long term. For the cultivars in this experiment, a target crop density of nine fruit/cm 2 was found to adequately decrease biennial bearing while also not diminishing juice quality for hard cider production. High-tannin cider apple growers should consider juice quality, particularly tannin production, when making crop load management decisions.
... Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and sorbate (sorbic acid) is it used in winemaking, cider and perry elaboration process as an antimicrobial and antioxidant, can be added after malolactic fermentation and prior to bottling as a preservative agent [12]. These antimicrobial compounds are controlled by legislation, being the maximum level permitted in the final product for sulfite and sorbate in Argentina of 200 mg/L [1,2,[13][14][15]. However, there are microorganisms that can growth in the presence of high concentrations of these preservatives. ...
Perry is a beverage obtained by fermentation of pear juice, popular in the North Hemisphere. In Argentina it is an emerging market, particularly in the Patagonian region. The aim of this work is to describe and to evaluate the spoilage yeasts associated to six perry samples showing signs of microbiological contamination from a local craft perry company in North Patagonian region. Eighteen yeasts were isolated from four of the six perry samples where Brettanomyces custersianus, Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Zygosaccharomyces parabailii were identified. The growth capacity of these isolates in the presence of antimicrobial agents (sulfite and potassium sorbate) was analyzed in solid media. Growth parameters in sterile perry must was evaluated and the production of undesirable compounds were evaluated, products were characterized in terms of their aromatic and physicochemical features. The yeasts Z. parabailii NPCC1791 was able to grow on plates containing sulfite concentrations of up to 4 mM and produced high methanol concentrations in perry. Additionally, B. bruxellensis NPPC1792 was able to produce methanol as well as high concentrations of volatile phenols including 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol. These results demonstrate the potential of these species as perry contaminants. Given the lack of studies describing the contaminating yeasts in perry production, this work represents the first report about perry spoilage yeasts in Argentina, with this knowledge, control strategies can be developed to prevent microbiological contamination and minimize product loss.
... Many of these cider cultivars originated in England and France but are now grown in North America. Tannins are phenolic compounds that add bitterness and astringency, and thus complexity, to cider (Merwin et al. 2008;Valois et al. 2006). Several reports suggest that demand for these high-tannin apples among cider producers greatly exceeds supply (Pashow 2018;Raboin 2017;Weinstock 2016). ...
... there a clear trend between number of acres planted and number of cultivars: both large-and small-scale cider apple orchards have diversified plantings. Growing many different cultivars can allow new growers to identify those best suited to their site, and help growers at all levels of experience reduce the risk of crop failure from frost, disease, biennial bearing, etc. Diversification also enables cidermakers to make more "complex" or "balanced" cider blends (Lea 1978;Merwin et al. 2008;Villière et al. 2015). ...
The current supply chain for high-tannin cider apple cultivars is fragmented and not well quantified. Our survey work showed that high-tannin apples account for a small percentage of the total fruit or juice used in ciders. Problems with the supply of high-tannin apples include limited acreage, recency of plantings, and biennial bearing.
... Perry makers have also noted that consumption of their product is well suited to the spread desire to consume local products, developing niche brands based on varieties produced in restricted geographic areas. These factors, together with an evolution of consumer's preferences towards drinks less alcoholic than grape wine, have contributed to the steady growth of pear cider market across the world (Merwin et al., 2008). ...
... Of the total apples produced in the world about 35% are processed, with juice and cider as the main products (Bortolini et al., 2020). Cider is one of the world's oldest low-alcohol beverages that continues to be widely consumed, especially in regions with long traditions of cider-making such as Western Europe and North America (Merwin et al., 2008). Ciders have been playing an important role in Portugal, with great potential growth in the national market. ...
... Throughout the process, some chemicals and nutrients are added for proper control of the fermentation, and to prevent off-flavor compounds or other defects. Further ingredients such as preservatives, sweeteners, carbonation, or colorants are also added in the final bottling (Merwin et al., 2008). Currently, there is concern about making the production process more ecological, simple, and cheap without sacrificing flavor. ...
Abstract Waste recovery, in a circular economy context, is associated with clear economic and environmental benefits. Although apple pomace has been extensively studied for many applications, the valorization of pomace from emerging craft cider production is a novelty. This work is intended to determine the nutritional value, chemical composition, and phenolic and mineral profiles of pomace from craft cider waste. Levels of moisture (79.3%) and sugar contents (54.0%) stand out in their composition. Ethanol (1.56%) has been identified. Also, malic acid (2.94%), as well as α‐tocopherols (0.4 mg/100 g) were detected. The phenolic profile showed six flavonoid compounds identified mainly quercetin derivatives. The mineral analysis revealed potassium as the major constituent (58.5 mg/g). In conclusion, it is envisaged that cider pomace could be an ideal substrate for biotechnological purposes, particularly as a sustainable and alternative, cheap source to produce glycerol for application in various industries such as food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.
... Traditionally, cider quality and typicity has been thought to originate from some combination of geographic origin, apple varieties, and production methods (Lea, 2008;Proulx & Nichols, 1980). American cider products from the US, however, can be made using extremely diverse production methods and types of apples that are not yet tied to geographic regions, and which can have important implications for cider sensory quality (Littleson et al., 2022;Merwin et al., 2007;Rosend et al., 2019). Thus, more research is needed to confirm long-held beliefs about how place also plays into sensory quality, typicity, and terroir for American cider specifically (Brennan, 2019;Lea, 2008;Pucci & Cavallo, 2021). ...
... It is important to note that the ACA and other entities define cider styles in terms of flavor and ingredients, with little to no emphasis on production methods. Because cider can be made according to diverse production practices (Alexander & Ewing Valliere, 2020;Lea, 2008;Merwin et al., 2007; Proulx F I G U R E 5 Radar plots showing differences in mean intensity ratings for sensory attributes that varied significantly across cider styles (traditional and modern) in subplot (a), and across cider packaging (can and glass bottle) in subplot (b), by three-way analyses of variance (ANOVA). Broad differences can be seen across the different types of cider styles and packaging. ...
Although alcoholic or “hard” cider is a beverage of growing popularity throughout the Northeastern and Mid‐Atlantic United States (US), the industry lacks a consistent language for describing the sensory quality of its products. The main objective of this research was to explore the sensory attributes that can be used to describe a large representative sample (N = 42 samples) of ciders from Virginia, Vermont, and New York, using classical descriptive analysis (DA). The secondary objective of the research was to determine if cider samples’ sensory attributes differ based on extrinsic factors, such as style, packaging, and apple varieties. The study was conducted using a standard DA: 8 panelists were trained for 13 h to develop a lexicon of aroma, taste, and mouthfeel descriptors for 42 cider samples (15 single varietal ciders, 27 blended ciders). Then, subjects evaluated each cider in duplicate for all descriptive attributes in standard sensory‐evaluation conditions. Results were analyzed to determine overall differences among the individual cider samples, geographic origins, cider styles, and packaging formats, as well as significant differences across individual attributes. Herein, we report on 29 attributes that can be used to discriminate cider samples, as well as a subset of attributes which differentiate ciders based on extrinsic product variables. These results provide a framework for describing ciders from the Northeast and Mid‐Atlantic regions of the US, which may be further generalizable to other North American ciders. As well, these results highlight the potential for more descriptive, sensory‐based style guidelines may inspire future research related to cider production practices and terroir.
