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First responders and military personnel are particularly susceptible to behind armor blunt thoracic trauma in occupational scenarios. The objective of this study was to develop an armored thorax injury risk criterion for short duration ballistic impacts. 9 cadavers and 2 anthropomorphic test dummies (AUSMAN and NIJ 0101.04 surrogate) were tested ov...
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Context 1
... extent of armor deformation into the thorax is apparent when viewing the body armor with the high-speed dynamic flash x-ray as shown in Figure 6. Generally, the projectile penetrated from 2/3 to 3/4 the thickness of the armor while the armor backface deformed approximately 30- 40 mm into the subject's thorax. ...
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Citations
... We adopted an impactor (~214 g)-simulating backface deformation profiles produced by body armor from military-relevant ballistic rounds reported by Bass et al was used to deliver impact. 17 The impactor was launched to impact a targeted region on the live and cadaver swine using a custom gas-driven launching system. A triaxial accelerometer (Endevco 7284-20K (Endevco, Depew, New York)) was mounted within the impactor and hardwired to an external data acquisition system. ...
... As the current clay-based 44 mm deformation criterion is not region specific and the need exists to develop regional human injury criteria for standardized tests, this study aimed to develop a matched pair hybrid test paradigm and demonstrate its feasibility to record injuries and gather biomechanical metrics. The impactor shape simulated body armor induced backface deformations, as reported by Bass et al. 17 The protocol used live and cadaver swine as matched-pair experimental surrogates and obtained measures such as acceleration, energy, and injuries to skeletal structures and organs were identifed for similar assessments. 5 18 For the development of injury tolerance, an essential criterion to meet the matched pair design constraint is that the responses should be similar between the two or more surrogate models. ...
Background
The current behind armor blunt trauma (BABT) injury criterion uses a single penetration limit of 44 mm in Roma Plastilina clay and is not specific to thoracoabdominal regions. However, different regions in the human body have different injury tolerances. This manuscript presents a matched-pair hybrid test paradigm with different experimental models and candidate metrics to develop regional human injury criteria.
Methods
Live and cadaver swine were used as matched pair experimental models. An impactor simulating backface deformation profiles produced by body armor from military-relevant ballistics was used to deliver BABT loading to liver and lung regions in cadaver and live swine. Impact loading was characterized using peak accelerations and energy. For live swine, physiological parameters were monitored for 6 hours, animals were euthanized, and a detailed necropsy was done to identify injuries to skeletal structures, organs and soft tissues. A similar process was used to identify injuries to the cadaver swine for targeted thoracoabdominal regions.
Results
Two cadavers and one live swine were subjected to BABT impacts to the liver. One cadaver and one live swine were subjected to BABT impacts to the left lung. Injuries to both regions were similar at similar energies between the cadaver and live models.
Conclusions
Swine is an established animal for thoracoabdominal impact studies in automotive standards, although at lower insult levels. Similarities in BABT responses between cadaver and live swine allow for extending testing protocols to human cadavers and for the development of scaling relationships between animal and human cadavers, acting as a hybrid protocol between species and live and cadaver models. Injury tolerances and injury risk curves from live animals can be converted to human tolerances via structural scaling using these outcomes. The present experimental paradigm can be used to develop region-based BABT injury criteria, which are not currently available.
... Synthetic gels based on Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene (SEBS) has gained popularity in this regard [1]. While various anthropomorphic human surrogates have been developed [2][3][4][5], only a few physical surrogates, like BTTR [5], have demonstrated consistency with ballistic biomechanical corridors. Numerical surrogates, such as HUByx [6,9], SHTIM [10], and WALT [11], have also been developed to align with biomechanical corridors and cover different impact scenarios. ...
This study suggests the use of numerical procedures to aid in the development of a physical surrogate specifically designed for blunt ballistic impacts. The procedure involves utilising a finite element model to assist in material selection. The main focus of this study is to improve the material laws that describe the behaviour of soft tissue simulants. The newly developed numerical model was validated using experimental data obtained from non-penetrating ballistics scenarios involving cadavers. The results demonstrated satisfactory performance, indicating that the model can serve as a foundation for constructing a physical twin using readily available materials.
... These standards exist for other forms of body armor [4]. Due to privacy surrounding the defense sector, it is unknown how prevalent these injuries are in operation; however, injuries to the head [5] and chest [6] have been reported from similar behind armor blunt trauma mechanisms [7,8]. Investigation into the types of behind shield blunt trauma loads have been measured by a modified ATD arm [9,10] and risk of forearm and hand fracture identified from these types of loads [11]. ...
Ballistic shields protect users from a variety of threats, including projectiles. Shield back-face deformation (BFD) is the result of the shield deflecting or absorbing a projectile and deforming towards the user. Back-face deformation can result in localized blunt loading to the upper extremity, where the shield is supported by the user. Two vulnerable locations along the upper extremity were investigated - the wrist and elbow - on eight post-mortem human subjects (PMHS) using a pneumatic impacting apparatus for investigating the fracture threshold as a result of behind shield blunt trauma (BSBT). Impacting parameters were established by subjecting an augmented WorldSID Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) positioned behind a ballistic shield to ballistic impacts. These data were used to form the impact parameters applied to PMHS, where the wrist most frequently fractured at the distal radius and the elbow most frequently fractured at the radial head. The fracture threshold for the wrist was 5,663 ± 1,386 N (mean ± standard deviation), higher than the elbow at 4,765 ± 894 N (though not significantly, p = 0.15). The failure impact velocity for wrist impacts was 17.7 ± 2.1 m/s, while for the elbow, the failure impact velocity was 19.5 ± 0.9 m/s. An approximate 10% risk of fracture threshold was identified on the modified WorldSID ATD to inform a protective standard, where measured impacts less than 10.8 kN at the wrist and 12.5 kN at the elbow would be considered effective at limiting injury from BSBT.
... Due to their origin in the automotive industry, most ATDs are widely unsuitable for ballistic applications [14]. As a result, new alternative models of anthropomorphic human surrogates for ballistic injury assessment have been developed: AUSMAN-a reusable mechanical surrogate developed by the Australian Department of Defense [15], HSTM-Human Surrogate Torso Model [16], BTTR-Blunt Trauma Torso Rig [17], MHS-Modular Human Surrogate [18], SSO-Skin Skeleton Organs [19], and SurHUByx-Surrogate Hermaphrodite Universal Body YX [20]. (This is an outline overview and may not be exhaustive.) ...
... Test corridors according to Bir et al. [21] are predominantly used, as these are clearly documented and relatively simple to reproduce. Other sources for PMHS testing for ballistic applications refer to specific use cases for the investigation of behind armour blunt trauma [15] or the recreation of field cases with reference to blunt trauma [22,23]. Nevertheless, these models are only of limited suitability for the analysis of PPE, as the test corridors used only consist of mixed characteristic values from a relatively moderate number of PMHS tests. ...
The conception of ballistic personal protective equipment requires a comprehensive understanding of the human body’s response to dynamic loads. The objective of this study is to develop rib bone surrogates enhancing new anthropomorphic test devices for personal protective equipment evaluation at high dynamic impacts. These are fabricated with additive manufacturing and compared to post-mortem human subjects (PMHS) data from literature. The 5th rib of the finite element Global Human Body Model Consortium (GHBMC) male 50th percentile (M50) model was extracted and transferred to a CAD model. This CAD model was divided into 30 sections with specific cortical bone thicknesses in all directions (caudal, cranial, cutaneous and pleural) from an equivalent rib of an M50 PMHS. Three different additive manufacturing technologies (direct metal laser melting, fused filament fabrication and multi jet modeling) were used to reproduce the M50 PMHS 5th rib surrogate. A total of 57 specimens were dynamically (500 mm/s) loaded to failure in a bending scenario imitating a frontal thoracic impact. Force, displacement, stiffness, and energy at failure were determined. Also, the strain distribution using 3D digital image correlation was recorded and compared to PMHS data from literature. The rib surrogates show deviations from the PMHS characteristic values. Nevertheless, there are also common characteristics in key variables to certain age groups of the PMHS data, which will facilitate the further development and improvement of adequate surrogates for a more realistic representation of the human body’s response to high dynamic loads.
... Other materials, such as 10% or 20% ballistic gelatin, Permagel, ballistic soap, Roma Plastilina No. 1 clay, or styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene (SEBS) gel-based have also been used, but these surrogates consist of a cubic block [7]. To take into account human anthropometry, anthropomorphic human surrogates have also been developed, including Ausman [8], SSO (Skin-Skeleton-Organs) [9], MHS (Modular Human Surrogate) [10], HSTM (Human Surrogate Torso Model) [11], and BTTR (Blunt Trauma Torso Rig) [12]. ...
... Further work will consist to add sensors inside the surrogate organs and replicate field impact cases in order to build the probability function of injury for each organ. Impact cases and methodology described in [3,5,8,19] may be used. In addition, materials used to represent muscle and mediastinum in the SurHUByx have to be fully characterized and implemented in the SurHUByx FEM in order to reduce discrepancies between the physical and the numerical model. ...
This study described the creation of a physical human thorax surrogate dedicated to blunt ballistic impacts called SurHUByx. The geometry of this new surrogate is based on an existing numerical model, named HUByx, which consists of a biofidelic 50th percentile human torso finite element model. In order to build the physical dummy, and to choose appropriate materials for anatomical structures, able to reproduce correctly the human behavior, a reverse engineering procedure was applied. Material properties of the numerical model (especially the bone structures, as well as internal organs) were simplified in order to match properties of manufacturable materials: Trabecular and cortical bones, as well as costal cartilage were merged, and then modeled with a homogeneous material, whereas internal organs were made of synthetic gel, which has already proven its biofidelity. These simplifications lead to the creation of a new numerical “simplified” biomechanical model (named SurHUByx FEM). It was then used to replicate experimental reference cases conducted on Post Mortem Human Subjects. Results were consistent with the experimental biomechanical corridors. The model being validated, the construction of the physical dummy began: Internal organs (heart, lungs, liver, and spleen) were molded in 3D printed molds with SEBS gel. Muscle and Mediastinum were molded with 3D printed molds using various concentrations of SEBS gel. Skin was made with the vinyl skin of the Hybrid III dummy. In the same way as for the numerical validation, the new physical dummy was submitted to the same impact cases. The whole procedure allowed creating a biofidelic dummy with manufacturable materials, which can be used for ballistic accident reconstruction, as it was already performed in the literature in the crashworthiness framework.
... The behaviour of FE models dedicated to automotive impacts has been found to be unsuitable for ballistics impacts, as demonstrated in a numerical study by Thota et al. 28,29 To obtain reference data on human response to blunt ballistics impacts, researchers have conducted experiments on humans. [30][31][32][33][34] Nevertheless, due to ethical concerns and limitations, these studies are limited in number and scope, making the use of physical and numerical surrogates an important tool in understanding the mechanisms of injury and optimising protective measures in the field of ballistic protection. The objective of this study is to present an overview of techniques used for assessing protection in a ballistic context, with a specific emphasis on non-penetrating blunt impacts to the thoracic and abdominal regions, including Behind Armor Blunt Trauma (BABT). ...
... For the study of global thoracic chest wall motion, a limited number of publicly available PMHS experiments have been conducted and can be found in references such as. [30][31][32][33][34][36][37][38] In order to predict wound and injury patterns, it was necessary to analyse the local behaviour of biological materials, including human tissues such as organs and tissues extracted from fresh or frozen and thawed, un-embalmed human cadavers. 39,40 However, given the importance of conserving the biological components, research has reported controversial findings regarding the bio-mechanical properties of organs and tissues. ...
... The earlier ballistics dummy having such structure was inspired by the Hybrid III crash test dummy, consisted of wood, water and plastic with foam for the lungs, a water-filled torso and included pressure transducers in the airways. 115 Recently, Bass et al. 30 in collaboration with the Defence Science and Technology Organisation of Australia (DSTO) created the AUSMAN torso model. This model included an anthropomorphic skeletal system with a realistic spine and a simulated cardiopulmonary system, all enveloped by a room temperature vulcanising (RTV) polymer. ...
Human surrogates have long been employed to simulate human behaviour, beginning in the automotive industry and now widely used throughout the safety framework to estimate human injury during and after accidents and impacts. In the specific context of blunt ballistics, various methods have been developed to investigate wound injuries, including tissue simulants such as clays or gelatine ballistic, physical dummies and numerical models. However, all of these surrogate entities must be biofidelic, meaning they must accurately represent the biological properties of the human body. This paper provides an overview of physical and numerical surrogates developed specifically for blunt ballistic impacts, including their properties, use and applications. The focus is on their ability to accurately represent the human body in the context of blunt ballistic impact.
... Thoracic injuries encompass a spectrum of severity, spanning from mild skin abrasions (as classified by the abridged injury scale [AIS] as level 1) to more serious sternal fractures (categorized as AIS 3+). These injuries correlate with impact velocity and bone mineral density [1]. Historically, vests have been associated with safeguarding the human body against potential harm or damage. ...
Anti-ballistics technology's significance in safeguarding national defense and security has intensified amid rising threats and insurgencies. While prior studies have investigated advancements in anti-ballistic technologies, a noticeable gap persists in discussions involving anti-ballistics through bibliometric analysis and cutting-edge evaluations. This scarcity of research originates from the sensitivity surrounding weapon-related discourse. This article aims to bridge this gap by unveiling an exhaustive bibliometric analysis and contemporary assessment of anti-ballistics research spanning 47 years. The analysis's distinctiveness lies in its approach to addressing this research void within the anti-ballistics domain, achieved through meticulous scrutiny of existing research via bibliometric analysis techniques. The analysis was facilitated by employing Biblioshiny software integrated with RStudio and VOSviewer. Data processing encompassed keyword searches within the Scopus database, with outcomes presented in CSV format. Notably, the study's findings highlight the United States as the frontrunner in reference count and publication output within the anti-ballistics realm. The National Institute of Standards and Technology stands out with 89 articles. Furthermore, a systematic categorization of anti-ballistic materials based on their developmental applications was conducted. Temporal assessment revealed shifting research trends, transitioning from "ceramic materials" in 2016 to "nonmetallic matrix composites" in 2020, particularly for body armor applications. This endeavor involves recognizing notable contributors, categorizing diverse materials under study, and tracking research trend shifts over time. The analysis offers indispensable insights to guide diverse stakeholders' decision-making. It's noteworthy that this bibliometric analysis holds particular value for novices or those entering the field for the first time. Our study significantly enriches the anti-ballistics domain through contributions to library studies and research mapping. By presenting a comprehensive overview of anti-ballistics research trends, our analysis enhances comprehension and empowers informed decision-making for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers alike.
... At the forearm, impact forces were recorded ranging from 3.8 to 6.9 kN over durations of 0.515 ms to 0.493 ms. These loads are substantially different than those collected in other anatomical areas subjected to BABT [12,13]. Although these findings were not significantly different from one another as measured on the ATD, the post-mortem human surrogate (PMHS) response has yet to be evaluated. ...
Ballistic shields protect users from a variety of threats, including projectiles. Shield back-face deformation (BFD) is the result of the shield absorbing energy from a projectile and deforming towards the user. Back-face deformation can result in localized blunt loading to the upper extremity, where the shield is supported by the user and may cause injury through behind armour blunt trauma (BABT) mechanisms. Post-mortem human subject (PMHS) responses are critical to identify the injury risk in these high-rate scenarios and are used to quantify the injury tolerance. Two vulnerable locations along the upper extremity were investigated—the hand and forearm—using eight PMHS to identify the fracture threshold resulting from shield BABT loading conditions. Impacts delivered to the hand at 16.4 ± 0.8 m/s resulted in failure loads of 3818 ± 897 N, whilst the forearm impacts delivered at a similar velocity of 16.9 ± 1.9 m/s had lower failure loads at 3011 ± 656 N. The corresponding 10% risk of hand and forearm fractures (as measured on a modified WorldSID Anthropomorphic Test Device) were identified as 11.0 kN and 8.1 kN, respectively, which should be used when evaluating future designs of composite ballistic shields. This study is the first known investigation of the upper extremity to this high loading rate scenario and provides the foundation for future biomechanical research in the area of behind shield blunt trauma.
... There have been other injury criteria suggested for the assessment of BABT injuries. Impact velocity has been shown to correlate well with thoracic injuries from AIS 1 to AIS 3+ [29]. Rafaels et al. analyzed depth, volume and the Blunt Criterion (BC) using similar re-recreations into clay and found that BC predicted the probability of increased injury classification well (p<0.0001) ...
Historically, Roma Plastilina No.1 clay has been used as a back-face material to certify ballistic body armor. The amount of deformation in the clay has provided a static pass/fail metric. Injury criteria that consider a dynamic response may allow for better risk assessments. The objective of this study was to determine if a new surrogate, the flat Blunt Trauma Torso Rig (f-BTTR) was an appropriate tool to use to measure dynamic back-face deformation (BFD) and predict Behind Armor Blunt Trauma (BABT) injuries. Real-world BABT injury cases were re-created in a laboratory setting using the f-BTTR.
The f-BTTR provides dynamic BFD data which allows for the calculation of injury criteria (i.e., VCmax). Additionally, dynamic three-dimensional data may provide insights into injury risks (e.g., volume and volume change over time), but additional testing and analysis is required to see if these data will allow for an improved correlation to injury.
... No bullet instability was seen in the approximately 35 cm flight to impact. The incoming round velocity was measured using an inductive technique and video analysis [175]. Pîrvu et al. carried out the testing of the realized protection packages to evaluate their resistance to the 9 mm FMJ bullet was discussed in 2021, taking into account the resistance to penetration through the depth of the trace left in the support material (ballistic clay), namely, the backface signature. ...
... Schematic illustration of the test fixture. The illustration is drawn based on data presented in[175]. ...
Antiballistics are used as personal protective equipment required by military and police personnel. They have been mentioned frequently in recent decades due to the increasing cases of war. Several studies have reviewed the development of antiballistic technology. However, there needs to be more discussion on and systematic reviews of the current milestones of antiballistic materials, testing, and procedures. In addition, compared to other fields, antiballistic studies are rarely carried out by public researchers because research on weapons is still a sensitive topic. Researchers who want to discuss antiballistics must cooperate with the country's defense and security agencies. This article aims to present a summary on and the development of scientific research on the theoretical concept of impact, the experimental approach for ballistic tests on advanced materials, the idealization of ballistic tests in computational mechanic simulations, and milestones of technical apparatus for ballistic performance measurement, over a period of more than 500 years. Thus, this analysis makes an excellent contribution to the field of antiballistics. This article review is based on hundreds of international journals and websites that are still active and can be accounted for legally. The results show that research related to antiballistics will continue to grow yearly.
